General Outline
1. Eschatological hope
2. The Mystery of death
3. Judgement of God
4. Purification or purifying maturation
5. Darkness or hell
6. Resurrection of the dead
7. Blissful light
8. Parousia of the Lord
9. Symbolic and non symbolic language
10. False projections of judgement and after death
11. Basis for Eschatology in the resurrection of Jesus Christ
12. Time and eternity
Introduction
The very word eschatology is rather unclear or mysterious. It is still a fast developing subject. The only thing that is clear to ordinary man is that there is death for all. There is too much of mythology regarding the ends of man.
Eschatology is a vision of God; a communion; a moving towards light which is God. Eschatology is the fullness of light. Eschatology is a fulfilment of the life of man – fulfilment of hope. Without hope there is no dynamism of life. GS speaks of the mission of the Church in the world which shares happiness and misery in life. Everybody looks for happiness, but they end up in misery. There is the problem of innocent suffering in the world. This makes people to think that how can a loving God allow this.
Individual eschatology and Common eschatology: Bible speaks of both these. It is the common eschatology that is given more importance. Salvation of the community (totality of mankind)is more important. Individual eschatology is studied only in relation to the community eschatology.
Limbo: it was believed that those who are not baptised or lived before Christ are kept in a place called ‘limbo’. The infants also are kept there.
Purgatory: A middle place. It is the place of continuing purification.
Limbo, Purgatory etc. are symbols. They indeed are good; but there are misuses of this.
Very few people are interested about the life after. All are thinking to this life and its pleasures. Many are agnostics because things after death are not clear. We do not have further revelation about the life after. Revelation is completed with Christ. Apostles are the direct witnesses of this revelation. We cannot give a rational teaching about any of these. It is based on Jesus. The centre of Christian hope is eschatology in the risen Jesus.
Jesus used symbols to speak about eschatology like kingdom of God or reign of God. It is God who is ruling and guiding the world. God has a definitive purpose regarding this world. We are looking foreword to the fulfilment of the kingdom of God.
Eschatology is the systematic reflection on the content of our Christian hope. It also deals with the risk or failure of not attaining the Christian hope.
Eschata means ‘ends’ or ‘outcomes’. Traditionally it meant ‘the last things’ – the four things: death, judgement, hell and heaven. It also dealt with discussions on purgatory, limbo and the end of the world. The traditional eschatology is in a lamentable situation, says Congar. The treatise on eschatology is still in its infancy, says Karl Rahner. Protestants also agrees with this.
Theology after Vatican II: it sees eschatology in a different perspective other than we find in the text books between Trent and Vatican II. The present emphasis is on the promised reign of God in human experience and in the whole creation.
The ultimate fulfilment is seen in the person of Jesus Christ. All the aspects of the question regarding man is dealt with in the light of the fully realised reign of God in Jesus Christ. Eschatology is the whole content of the gospel. Gospel is concerned with the salvation of the individual as well as the community. This emphasis on the reign of God in an evidence for the community dimension of hope. It speaks of the individual hope in the context of the general hope. Hope has essentially a transcendent dimension. But this emphasis on the reign of God is also this worldly. Christian hope is transcendental and mundane. There is wider hope for the world for which we have a responsibility. So eschatology deals not only what lies beyond death and history; it has an earthly dimension too. (Cf. Mystical and political dimension of faith, Concilium 1995, No 9). The notion of reign of God must be kept radically separate from question of political responsibility, says Ratzinger.
Reign of God is falsely interpreted. The present eschatology includes a worldly based eschatology. Reign of God is equated with the risen Christ by Ratzinger. Personal salvation is attained only by death. The growth of the kingdom is invisible. The Church is the initial budding stage of the kingdom (LG). There is no kingdom without the Church even though the institutional Church has its deficiencies. Humanity of Christ is the instrument for the word of God. In the same way the visible structure of the Church (which is the instrument of the Holy Spirit) is need for the growth of the kingdom of God. This notion gives increased hope for awaiting the kingdom. Kingdom is already; it depends on human acceptance. Its growth is invisible. Man has to live in total trust and in community with others. Know that God reigns; all the others will follow. Because of this approach of Jesus on the kingdom Jesus met with an early opposition. The theme of resurrection took place of the kingdom of God. By his death and resurrection the kingdom was inaugurated in a seminal way. The full manifestation is still to come. The expectation of another coming of Christ in glory is seen. 9I Cor 15, 23; 1 Thess 2, 19; 3, 13; 4, 15 – 18; Col 3, 4).
Characteristics of Christian eschatology
It is the risen Christ who unifies eschatology. The future fulfilment is not a place, but a person, the risen Christ himself. Eschatology is personal centred, i.e., it is Christocentric. Christ is the beginning and the end.
Ecclesial Character of eschatology
Church is understood as a community which has its origin in Jesus Christ himself, because Church is the fruit of the redemptive work of Christ. Eph 1, 4ff speaks of the nature of this community. Church is looking up foreword a fulfilment – union with the risen Christ.(Rev 22, 1 – 5). The Church moves towards the glorified and reigning Christ. We are liberated from limits of time and space. The risen Christ is the heaven; his loss is called ‘hell’.
Trinitarian character of eschatology
The risen Christ is the way to the father and to the Holy Spirit. So there is the communion with the Trinity.
Death
Death is the central eschatological event. Man is constituted an integral person at his death. The fathers of the church emphasized the ecclesial and communitarian dimension of eschatology. So they emphasized on general judgement, communitarian aspect of resurrection and Parousia. They did not give importance to the retribution of the individual after death. It is reserved for the end for them.
Scholastic Period: Physical death and purgatory were emphasized. The multiplication of private masses, granting of indulgences etc. developed during this period. Fear and terror of death instead of confidence and trust developed. Gradually death became the central eschatological event. With death eternal life begins. It can be in the presence r in the absence of God. the individual meets the risen Christ who is the Eschaton.
The Futuristic Approach: Apocalyptic model: the destruction of everything by some force and a new beginning. The last time is already inaugurated in Jesus Christ. Future events are deeply rooted in the present. (The judgement is already here; whether we accept the truth which is given). But it is not yet fulfilled.
Eschatological Hope
What we believe is what is revealed. Content of our faith is what is revealed in it. Faith in the promises of Christ looks foreword for fulfilment. Faith opens up new expectations for the future. The glorified Christ and Christian hope together constitute our understanding of eschatology. 1 Cor 15: Resurrection of Christ and Christian hope. Faith and hope go together, having more or less same character. Hope (ελπις) is the trust in the person who speaks of acts. Ελπις is mainly found in St. Paul – placing one’s confidence. It is man’s total surrender to God.
Nature of Hope
The object of hope is ‘glory’ or ‘light’ (δοχα). Christian hope is a sharing in the glory of God and of Christ. Man is deprived of this glory or splendour of God (Rom 3, 23). Christian can rejoice in the hope of sharing the glory of God. (Rom 5, 20). The material universe also will share in this glory. (Rom 8, 19 – 22). Glory is specified as salvation, eternal life, redemption, resurrection inheritance, kingdom etc. (Eph 1, 18; Col 1, 5). The salvation, which is the object of Christian hope is centred around the risen Christ. We await this manifestation of Christ (1 Cor 1, 7), who will transform our bodies like his body. (Phil 3,21).
The Motive of Hope
1. The Promise: Christian hope starts with a promise – the promise made to Abraham. All the rest is a development of this promise made to Abraham. This promise is a promise filled with power – a word with power. Ex 3, 14; “Yahweh is He who will be”. He is mindful of what he has promised. This fidelity of Yahweh is a guarantee for further intervention in future. The promises are fulfilled in Jesus Christ. He is our inheritance. He is also our promise. We are also sharers of this promise in association with Christ. (Gal 3, 29) We await the full realization of this inheritance (Rom 8, 17; Eph 1, 13ff). The promises to Abraham is confirmed by an oath, i.e., God is bound to his promise. The firmness of Christian hope is the firmness of God himself.
2. The paschal mystery of Christ: The death and resurrection of Christ is the Christological foundation of hope. (1 Cor 15). Rom 8, 32: He was put to death for our sins and raised for our justification. Christ who died and rose is our intercessor. Rom 4, 25; 8, 32 – 34. The hope of resurrection of the body rests on Christ’s own resurrection. The resurrection of Christ is the first fruit of our resurrection. (1 Cor 15, 20). Without this our hope is empty.
3. The gift of the Spirit: The indwelling Spirit is the immediate cause of our hope. The spirit of the promise (Eph 1, 14). The indwelling Spirit is marked by incompleteness and it clamours for completeness. (2 Cor 1, 22). He (partial Spirit) is the first fruit, a seal, for fullness of possession. Rom 3, 28: We are justified and hope to attain salvation later. The present justification is a sure motive for the fullness of eschatological salvation. (a tension between already and not yet).
There are other aspects of Christian hope – sonship, sanctification, freedom – all these are partial realities, but with a sure foundation for fullness. (Gal 5, 5). Rom 5, 1 – 6; 8, 17 – 25: The present union with God I the Spirit is a motive of joyful hope for the future as well as trend in the afflictions of the present. Man expects and awaits the fullness of filiation. This is rooted in the presence of spirit in man.
4. Theological Motives: The faithful love of the Father, starting with the promise made to Abraham, the paschal mystery of Christ, the indwelling of the Holy Spirit – all these are manifestations of the faithfulness of the Father. Col 1, 25 – 27; Eph 1, 1 – 14. The motive of hope is reduced to the saving action i.e., the love of the Father manifested in the double gift of the Son and the Spirit. So we can think of the Trinitarian character of hope. (1 Pet 1, 3 – 6).
For John future realities are already present. We are in eternal life. Jn 17, 3: Eternal life means knowing God and the Son. In John we do not find the terminology of hope. The transition to eternal life is only a visible manifestation of the reality already possessed. Encouragement is given to the Christian engaged in struggle on earth. Rev 5, 11 – 14; 21, 22 – all the promises will be finally realized. The church looks confidently at the risen Lord – “I am coming”. The church in response prays “Maranatha”
The subjective realization of hope corresponds to the objective reality of the Father’s fidelity manifested in Christ and the Spirit, as the guarantee of the Christian eschatological salvation. Paul’s emphasis is on future realities. For John it is already present. But both are essential.
(Antinomies of Hope
Confidence – Uncertainty
Joy - Fear)
Contemporary pastoral approach towards death:
Death is the reward of sin. it is a consequence of sin. In other words, death is a punishment for sin. (Gen 2, 19).
Death is something that brings about fear. But it should be brought down. Death is a natural event; it is a natural end. Because man also is a part of nature. Death for a Christian is a sharing in the paschal mystery of Christ.
Traditionally there are three important themes regarding death: 1. Origin of death: Death is a punishment for sin (Council of Trent). They refer to the sin of Adam. He is punished; he had already been warned that if he sins he would die. But it cannot absolutely be said because death is a natural event. So we must combine both. Christ’s death is natural, because he was just like a human being. Or he took the punishment for our sins. So both these aspects should taken together when we speak of death. 2. the generality of death: all human beings subject Old Testament the original sin are subject to the law of death. The universality of death is based on the universality of original sin (Rom 5, 12). It is appointed to man once to die. Heb 5, Gen 5, 24; Eccl 44, 16. 2 Kings 2, 11. Henoch and Elijah did not undergo death. They will appear in the second coming.
1 Cor 15, 51: significance of death: with death the possibility of merit, demerit or conversion ceases. the impossibility of justification after death is taught by Vatican I.
Lk 16, 26
Jn 9,4: night and day: Night = the time when no man can work.
2 Cor 5, 10: All must appear for judgement.
Gal 6, 10: Do good when you have time.
Rev. 2, 10
The common teaching of the Fathers: The time for conversion and penance is limited for this life (E.g. Cyprian says that it is here below the life is lost or won). People should make use of life on earth to gain ever lasting life. Death is the end of man’s probation. His status as a sojourner comes to an end.
Greek and Semitic Approach to Man: Greeks speak of dualism of body and soul. Death is a separation of body and soul. According to the Semitic people death is a natural corruption of the body. Old Testament understanding is that to die means to sleep with the Fathers. They had a hope to die in a good old age, i.e., after a long life. According to the wisdom literature man’s death is natural just like any other being. (Eccl 3, 9). The fate of man of beast are the same – comes and returns to the dust.
Mosaic Literature: (Written in Post Exilic Period). A new approach to death, more juridical in character is seen. (Sin and death). it could be the result of Babylonian captivity. this is seen in the description of paradise. Gen 2, 17; 3, 17 – 19. Primary issue is not death; but life here. The punishment terminates with death. Death is not seen as the part of punishment. After undergoing punishment he will die because man is naturally mortal. Death is closely connected with sin; but not presented as the direct consequence of sin.
New Testament
1. Death as the end of man’s probation: Jn 9, 4ff; Mt 25, 31ff; Lk 16, 19ff. Take these texts as a comprehensive testimony. Nothing is said about the possibility of change after death. The emphasis is on this side of the eternity.
2. death as the wages of sin. (St. Paul). He explains everything in relation to the divine plan of salvation. (Eph 3, 9). This plan is now revealed to the saints (Col 1, 26). Paul’s approach is essentially eschatological; it is cantered around the resurrection of Christ. Rom 5, 12 – 14: Justification is through observance of the law. This he explains in relation to Gen 2 and 3. law becomes the occasion for sin and death. (Rom 7, 7 – 13). Law is harmful because it awakens consciousness of sin. If there was no law sin would have been remained dormant. Death is caused by sin. (sin is made conscious of by law) and it is rendered by its close align, i.e., law. Relationship between law, sin and death is essential to understand Rom 7, 7 – 13. Before the coming of law is was not imputable. If no law, no imputation. Sin refers to the personal sin (amartia). In the absence of positive law man can and did sin; i.e., sinning against his conscience (Rom 2, 14 – 16). Paul refers to Adam – Christ relationship. If Adam exercised such destructive influence through sin and death, the salvific influence of Christ is greater. Man collaborated Adam’s sin through man’s personal sins. Adam’s sin the power of sin and man’s personal sin are important.
The Spiritual conception: Rom 7, 9; 8, 13; Eph 2, 1 – 5; Col 2, 13; Rev 3, 11; 1 Jn 3, 14: Man’s personal sin induces not physical death, but spiritual death. Spiritual death is a state of alienation from the God of life. Wis 2, 23ff interprets Gen 2 in the sense of spiritual death.
Both juridical and spiritual conceptions connect the relation between sin and death. The juridical approach explains both spiritual and physical death, whereas the spiritual trend considers death only spiritually. No biblical author explains the death of the body as an effect of man’s sin. 1. Physical death is man’s natural destiny unrelated to sin. 2. We can consider bodily death as a symbol of the state of alienation from God induced by sin rather than the effect of sin. 3. Death as a passage into the risen Christ: Death of Christ is a passage from darkness to life. Mk 15, 33: when he died darkness disappeared – an apocalyptic description of Christ’s death. Before his death there came darkness. With his death begins a new day. Jesus’ death is a passage to the beatifying passage to the father. This passage is a response to his prayer: “Father glorify me with your glory.” Jn 17, 5: death and exaltation are the two aspects of Doxa (glory). The dark night of Friday is expelled by the splendour of Easter. Jesus becomes a life giving spirit. Cor 15, 45. the death of a Christian is similar to the death of Christ. A Christian no more has the fear of death. Heb 2, 9: In tasting death Christ stood for us all. He has liberated all who were in fear of death. He has destroyed Satan by his death, who has power over death.(Heb 2, 14ff). he did not suppress death for the Christian, but transformed it into a source of life. A Christian is not exempt from death, but drawn to the paschal death of Christ. Redemption is sharing in the paschal death of Christ.
St. Paul
He speaks of death as a sacrifice – a re production of Calvary. He speaks of his death as a sacrifice. (Phil 2, 17). In 2 Tim 4, 6 also he speaks of his own death. Sacrifice has two aspects. 1. Annihilation or self commitment. 2. Acceptance. Death as a sacrifice implies acceptance (Resurrection). Both life and death are connected with the Lord. Phil 1, 21 – 23: Death is a necessary means to reach risen Christ. It is almost a supernatural concupiscence to depart and be with Christ. To die means to be in union with the risen Lord. Thess 1, 17: Meeting the risen Lord.
2 Cor 5, 6 – 8. Christian is in exile and long for a dwelling place in heaven.
St. John’s Theology of Death
He also speaks of the paschal character of death – passing from darkness to light. Basing on Gen 2 and 3 John speaks of the theme of death – tree of life and living water. This symbols are used very much in Revelation. Rev 1, 1: Christ the living God. His victory is extended to all Christians from the tree of life. (Rev 2, 7). They receive immortal life. A second death is inaccessible to them. (Rev 2, 11). They have an active role in the kingdom (2, 26 – 28). They reign in the kingdom of heaven. Their names are written in the book of life of the lamb. They participate I the power of the living God.(3, 1; 21, 7). The first death or physical death is unimportant for John. The second death is final and eternal (at the time of judgement). Judgement means, judgement of the denial and of those whose names are not found in the book of life.
In the gospel he speaks about Christ as the principle of light and life.(Jn 11). The resuscitation of Lazarus illustrates John’s understanding of death. It is a sign of the eternal life to be imparted in its fullness to Christian after death. It is a symbol of Christians’ passage from death to eternal life. Just as Lazarus came into life the Christians also will enter into life. Those who have received the gift of faith will not have a spiritual death. Faith in Jesus transforms the meaning of death. He who believes in him will never die. The first gift of the father is faith in Jesus which brings along with it a second gift – passage from death into eternal life.
Both Paul and John view death as an unavoidable transition to life with Christ. The light of risen Christ dispels fear and terror because dying Christians move into the hands of the living God. Gs 45; LG 48 – 51.
Death – Activity or Passivity?
Some theologians says death is sheer contemplation and passion; not an activity of man. We do not manage to die; it is something which happens to us. We do not surrender ourselves; we are taken. According to Schillebeeckx death itself is an act.
Rahner and others speaks of death as active. Death is a final ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to God and an act of surrender or rebellion. The final act (death) is a personal consummation of one’s life. “As you live, so you die:”
Death is an act. Man’s compost structure as nature and person: as nature man undergoes death. This is a necessary rupture; the end of the pilgrimage. At the same time it is the natural fulfilment of the human person. Man is destroyed from without; man completes himself from within. The death of Christ: In Calvary Jesus effects an active surrender – a consummation from within. Christ’s death is active because 1. his death is considered as a sacrifice (Eph 5, 2)which implies an active surrender and an acceptance by the father. 2. Christ’s death is the sealing of the covenant. (Heb 9, 11 – 22). Both these implies a free activity from the part of Christ.
Medical science also speaks of death as a gradual process which implies the possibility of death as an active surrender.
Pastoral Point of Death.
Some say that one undergoes five stages in death:
1. Denial and isolation: he denies that death is going to happen
2. Reaction: of anger – why should I undergo such experience? Anger towards God and fellowmen. – a stage of bargaining with God.
3. Stage of depression: A process of realisation of facts as true.
4. Resignation: They become sadly fatalistic about the inevitable end
5. Acceptance: No one escape from death – An inner and outer peace.
Some others add a sixth stage:
6. Stage of hope: Death is not the end- like Job – finding God (Job 19, 25 – 26)
People must be guided to accept death and have hope.
Judgement
Particular and general judgement: they are to be understood as complementary; not at two times. General is the fulfilment of the finality of all creations. No one escapes the judgement.
Mt 25. Right, left etc. are apocalyptic descriptions. It is not a judgement for all people; but for those who have not received faith i.e., for non believers. Even they have the possibility of salvation. According to some of the new Testament texts it is the Father who is the judge.(Mt 10,28). Christ here is only an advocate Rom 8, 31; 12, 19; 8,3; 3, 25; Rev 4, 11.
Jesus as the Supreme Judge: Mt 7, 22; Lk 17, 24: day of the son of man; Mt 16, 27; Mt 25, 34; 2 Cor 5, 10 – Tribunal of Christ; 2 Tim 4, 1; Rev 19,15 – Wrath of the judgement of the lamb; Risen Christ as the judge – Acts 10, 41; 17,31; Rev 1, 12 – 16 Dan 7, 13; Rev 2, 12 – 16; 19,15 - 21 – Christ is made judge by Father himself. Rom 1, 4: Fullness of life and light 1 Cor 15, 45. It is not Christ who judges; but he is the criterion of judgement. It is the faith that judges. Faith in the incarnation saves us. Unbelief excludes us from salvation. Incarnation is important because it is rooted in God’s love itself – giving his own son. God’s love is the origin of judgement. Unbelief in this love pronounces the judgement –i.e., love is turned to judgement. Saving faith in Jesus is the fundamental decision in man’s judgement.
Meaning of Judgement: Krinein means separation. Judgement is separation. (Mt 13, 24 – 30; Mt 13, 37 – 50; Mt 25, 31 – 46 – the eschatological state of the gentiles. (Cf. NJBC Mt 25).
Mt 10, 32 ff – Judgement of the disciples. Judgement is an explanation of the salvific plan of God. It speaks also of judgement by work and judgement by faith. Faith is operative I works of charity (Gal 5, 6). But good works are not sufficient – faith and baptism (Church) also are needed. (Jn 3, 5).
Universal Judgement: (MT 13, 28ff): but the individuals are not free; they also are judged. (Mt 24, 40; 13, 37). The judgement of them is based on the use of the talents.
Judgement as light: The word ‘light’ in john is equal to ‘separation’ in synoptics. Some texts say Christ came to judge; others say he did not come to judge. That means his purpose is salvation. The judgment is based on light – on the acceptance or rejection of light. Christ came as light to save and not condemn. The separation or acceptance is based on man’s wilful acceptance or rejection flesh this light. Jn 3, 9 gives the definition of the judgment: Light came to the world, but all loved darkness. Openness to the light is the judgment of salvation and closing oneself to the light of Christ is judgment or damnation. It is man who passes judgment on himself and it is accepted by Christ. Divine life is separating light which effects and creates the eschatological community.
Judgement – Present or future? In John we see both. But the emphasis is more on the present than the future. Jn 5, 26 – 30; Futuristic eschatology
Jn 5, 19 – 25: Realised eschatology (Present).
Judgement as Resurrection
The connection between the two is rather difficult. They are not different episodes. 1 Thess 4, 14 – 17; 2 Cor 5, 1 – 10: Judgement and resurrection in the same passage. There is no place for a general judgement after the resurrection. Men are raised to glory. This divine action constitute their judgement. There is the possession of essential beatitude by the just following the particular judgement. Baptismal justification: man is intrinsically transformed in baptism. The eschatological judgement manifests this transformation. It is a divine action. The resurrection (the judgement) is God’s action.
The Pneumetological Character of Judgement
It is the action of the Spirit which is the criterion of judgment. Sprit arouses a confident effectuation of our final salvation. Those who possess the Spirit will be judged by the law of liberty. Jas 2, 12. they long for the Lord’s coming. 1 Cor 16, 22: and they are saved in Spirit. Rom 8, 24: and they appear will with Christ in glory. Col 3, 4: they will finally become the possession of the Father, because they are sealed by the pledge of the Spirit.
Non Christians will be judged according to their conscience. Rom 2, 14 – 16. the conscience is the charter of judgement approving or condemning their action. Mt 21, 31ff: a classical text on judgement. The designation ‘last judgement’ is somewhat misleading. The core is following Jesus’ moral teaching. Faith in Jesus must transform the disciple. Man is judged on those things that he has not accustomed to consider as duties. Basing on this we can say, eschatology means man is capable of a final decision that gives his life a permanent character. Both wicked and righteous have made decisions which are irrevocable. The theme is base on the identity of Jesus with man. There is no substitute for active love. Love determines whether men are good or bad. Mt 25 has no parallel in Luke and Mark. Luke stresses the ‘importance of immediate retribution’. Lk 16, 23, 43. For John it is primarily a present reality rooted on incarnation. Judgement for him is not so much a divine sentence, as the revelation of the secret of human heart. The last judgement will reveal the divisions already present in human heart. The main thrust is not the chronology (when will it take place), but the ethical message.
MAGISTERIAL TEACHINGS
In the Early Church
Judgement is mostly spoken as judgment as something happens in the past. There is no final retribution immediately after death. The emphasis was on Christ who will come to judge. (Futuristic). This was based on apocalyptic texts.
There came a change in The Middle Ages. Judgement was seen both as present and future. Man’s retribution immediately after death, and also general judgement (Future). Pope Benedict XII (1336) Benedictus Deus(Cf. ND 2307).
Theological observations on General and Particular Judgements: the traditional explanation separating them with time is problematic. Because after death man has a timeless existence, without any temporal succession of moments. Also resurrection takes place probably immediately after death. General and particular looks at man as an individual as well as a social being. The perfection of an individual is at his dearth. It will have some influence on the entire body of the people of God;. The community as a whole will attain its perfection at the time of the Parousia. These two judgement are to be considered as tow mutually complementary phases. So there is one judgement and not two.
We have two series of texts. 1. which does not connect judgement with the end of time. 2. judgement at the end of time. But there is no contradiction between these. God through Christ would judge all men. This judgement takes place when man confronts Christ directly at his death. (Heb 9, 27). It is appointed for man to die once and after that comes judgement, the only judgement which can decide man’s eternal destiny.
Purifying Maturation
Purgatory purgare = Purify
The doctrine of purgatory is the best example for man’s intrinsic sinfulness. It is the purifying process of the Holy Spirit leading us to toe purgatorial cleansing. Some of the scriptural passages: 2 Macc 12, 39 -46: the only place referring to inter mediary state between beatitude and damnation. In this stage they can be helped by prayers and sacrifices. This text is only support for the doctrine of purgatory. There are faults which deserve punishment.
1Cor 3, 10 – 15: this is a classical text on purgatory. Some will be punished of the works they have done. Only their works will be destroyed; the persons will be saved. The reward of the apostolic work varies depending on the quality of the work.
Heb 12, 1; 13, 7: both these exhort the people to follow the example of the dead leaders. This text does not ask to pray for them.
1 Thess 4, 13 – 18: Those who are lost . It also does not say that we need to pray. This verse just consoles people.
Acts 12, 1- 5: Death of Jacob: the community prays for Peter who is alive, and not for James who is dead. But from these we cannot deduce that there is no doctrine about praying for the dead only because that they are silent about this.
Patristic Teaching
The custom of praying for the dead started from the beginning of the second century. The earliest source is Tertullian. At the death of Polycarp (156), there is a commemoration of him at his tomb. By the close of the second century the prayer for the dead developed among fathers and liturgical prayers. The Acts of the Martyrs testifies that they celebrated Eucharist and commemorated martyr’s memory at the tomb. Cyprian says that martyrdom is full atonement and therefore there is no more purification. All the sins are expiated by the suffering. It is different from long and continuous cleansing by fire.
Augustine speaks of temporal punishment to be expiated both in this life and after. Some suffer it both in this life and after. Those in between blessed and damned can benefit from suffrages. Origen (254) advocates the need of purification for all the debts. All have to undergo purification. The wicked is purified through hell fire and the just through purgatorial fire. (for those who have received baptism).
Ancient Christian grave inscriptions beseech peace and quickening for the dead.
Theologically speaking cleansing fire is derived form the concept of sanctity and justice of God. Sanctity demands only completely pure soul can be assumed into heaven (Rev 21, 27). Justice of God demands that punishment of sin still is to be satisfied. Those who are united with God in love cannot be cast into hell. Therefore an intermediary state is needed for final purification, which is then only for a limited time or period.
The western church speaks of purgation according to legal terms. Eastern fathers see purification in terms of maturation and growth in contemplation of God; it is not a punishment.
Catholics and Protestants: Protestants speaks of salvation by faith alone. They deny praying for the dead. Council of Trent answers this. Councils of Florence and Lyons speak of the approaches of East and West.
Though there is no explicit teaching in the New Testament about praying for the dead it cannot be negatively interpreted. Both practice of praying for the dead and doctrine of purgatory are to be considered as a positive development in accordance with the scriptures. This is especially based on the Eucharistic doctrine of scripture with it double emphasis on thanksgiving and intercession. This development has further roots: 1. it is based on the communion of saints. The Church began to ray to the martyrs for their intercession 2. the intercessory power of the Eucharistic memorial was extended in praying for the dead. 3. further reflection in this practice led the Church to the doctrine of the purgatory. The liturgical practice precedes theological reflection. That means they are post biblical developments in time with the Spirit of the New Testament.
Mt 12, 32: Need of purification: Gregory the great says that many sins can be forgiven in the world to come. Mt 5: those who did not fulfil the Christian brotherly love have a time limited punishment. Tertullian speaks of a time limited punishment I the prison (underworld). But Church does not teach this.
[purification fire, purifying punishment –poena purgaoria, poena sensus- physical suffering. Beth Purkana = House of Salvation = purgatory].
SHEOL, HADES, GEHENNA
Mt 25, 41: Depart from me you curse; go to eternal fire.
There is a close relation between sin death. Death includes judgement and condemnation. If sin leads to death, so it is sin that leads to hell. It is not God who puts one in the bell, but sin. Hell is a kind of absence of relationship with God.
1 Jn 4, 8: whoever does not love, does not know God, for God is love. The motive of incarnation is this love, not judgement, but love alone. The essence of God in New Testament is love itself. Hell is to be understood only in light of the love of God or heaven. Salvation ever since incarnation is Christ centred. Heaven is essentially the person of risen Christ. Heaven is to be in the person of risen Christ. To be away from him means to be in the hell. There is the universal salvific will of God. When we think of this hell is incomprehensible.
(the way of presentation cannot be considered as revelation or as reality. E.g. ‘Hell fire’.)
The Nature of Hell
Old Testament: Israel believed in a nether world called Sheol. It is the living place of all the living – not only of the condemned. All the living will go to it. There no one can praise God. There is no contact between God and man there in the sheol. This tragic aspect of death is the fruit of sin. This is a place of dirt. (Isa 14, 11? Or 40,11?). the life in sheol: it affects all men and it is the house for all the living it is the place of union with the ancestors and it is the only attractive element in it. But it is a life away from God.
Later sheol came to be understood as a place of retribution for the wicked only. A parallel word Hades takes place I the New Testament = the place of the wicked. Later Gehenna takes the place of Hades. Hades became a waiting place for resurrection.
The non permanent character of sheol and hades is similar to the character of purgatory. This character depends on the character of God, because he is the master of life and death. Later there came a hope for final accomplishment.
New Testament on Hell
New Testament witnesses varies and there is no unanimity. Description of hell varies according to different authors. Mt 25, 31 – 46; Depart from me to the eternal fire. Mt 13, 24 – 43: Parable of the wheat and weeds. The Wicked will be thrown into furnace, where there is grinding of teeth. (these are only peripherals). Mt 13, 47 – 50 : parable of the net – separation of the good and the wicked. Mt 22, 1 – 14; wedding feast. - ‘I do not know.’ Mt 22: Parable of the talents. The lazy was sent out into dark. All these parables are related to eschatological time. Separation and rejection takes place at the end of time. Jesus’ discourse about the nature of the hell: he preaches the good new of the kingdom. To motivate people to accept kerygma he proposes the theme of hell. (E.g. Punishment for behaviour against brotherly relation Mt 5, 22. the emphasis is on love, not on hell. The same threat is seen in teaching on chastity. 5, 25.). in Chapter 7, 21 – 23 : those who refuses to obey the word of God is throne out of his side. The idea can be seen in discourse on scandal (Mt 9, 40 – 48; Cf Isa 66? Or 56 , 24ff).
Gospel of John
He does not use the metaphor of fire. But he uses ‘darkness, second death judgement’ etc. this doctrine is based on his christocentric understanding of light and life. Eternal life has appeared in Jesus’ life. This life is light. (Jn 1, 4). It consists in the knowledge of the Father (life and light). Knowing the son is life and light. Coming of Christ puts and end to darkness. He is both life and light. At the end who are cut off from Jesus are handed over to darkness and death. This is second death and it is the definitive separation from the glory of risen Christ. The privation of the doxa (splendour) is hell for John. The damned will be deprived of the lamb and of his father. He who disobeys the son will not see light. God’s wrath is upon him. This idea is equivalent to his idea of judgement. For john judgement means condemnation.
St. Paul
St. Paul speaks of death and punishment in reference to God’s justice. He emphasises on life and salvation rather than death and punishment. The justice of God demands punishment for retribution (Rom 2, 5 – 10). Death is the wages of sin for him. (Rom 6, 23). Sinners will have no share in the kingdom of God. (1 Cor 6, 10). It is fearful to fall into the hands of the loving God. (Heb 16, 26 – 31).
The synoptics, especially Matthew, James, 2 Peter and Revelation: The language and image is of contemporary apocalyptic literature. Therefore they cannot be taken literally. Others do not use the Jewish apocalyptic language because it is not suitable for other people.
Theological Reflections on Hell
1. Pain of loss: Hell is the result of man’s self centeredness and impenitent self decision. God does not destroy man’s decision and freedom, says Schuler. Rejection of God’s love or separation from God continues and this state is called hell.
2. God is a God of love now and we cannot say that he turns to be a God of punishment at the moment of man’s death. God’s love is immutable. So hell is not due to God’s wrath, but due to man’s self determination and free activity.
Mt 25, 4: “Depart from me you Cursed” is to be seen comparing to Hos 22: “I will not execute my fierce anger for I am God and not man”. 1 Jn 4, 8 – 10 says God is love.
3. Man’s obduracy: man is essentially free and it continues in hell. There is no more flow of grace as was during his life time. God is beyond man’s reach. The pain of loss is due to the ontological state of man. Man has an ontological desire to see God. this desire is the proof of God’s love. This desire becomes a torture. It is a man made hell.
Theologically speaking fire is a symbol of God’s wrath. Wrath means impossibility of reconciling between God and sin. man through sin cuts himself off from God. this eternal separation is fire.
Lake of fire (Rev 20, 10): It is a symbol of man’s eternal separation from God. the contrast is between light and hell. The beatifying presence of God is light (heaven). His painful absence is symbolized by hell and fire. More than the loss of God fire represents the internal pain in man’s conscience for the loss of God’s presence.
Cf. LG 48 – 51.
Resurrection of the dead
what is the difference between the resurrection of the dead and of the body? Or is it only the immortality of the body? The resurrection is based on the resurrection of Jesus. John and Paul have something special about the resurrection.
Jn 11, 25: “I am the resurrection and life.” The resurrection of the body as ‘soma’ and not ‘sarx’. Soma is person itself, sarx is flesh only. Soma denotes to the whole person. The evolution of this belief in Israel: what is the nature of the continuity of life? In Old Testament life is the supreme gift promised to the Patriarchs – life for long centuries – feeling of the security of life in God’s presence. Resurrection means true happiness is not in material prosperity, but in friendship with God.
Divine justice and retribution: It is an essential element in Israelite religion. This hope is not applied always in this life. So they hoped a just divine retribution after death. Isa 26, 19: It is an indication of the rising hope. Ezek 37, 1 – 14: Dry bones. It is not regarding the bodily resurrection, but the Messianic liberation of the community. The new creation is the work of God. Dan 12, 1 – 3: a clear testimony in reference to the resurrection after life: the martyrs will be awarded after death. 2 Macc 7, 9ff: An explicit popular belief I resurrection. The theology of martyrdom and resurrection is seen here. 2 Macc 12, 41 – 45: All these explains the Old Testament idea of resurrection.
In the New Testament: The culmination of it is found in John and Paul. The Christological character is seen. Mt 22, 23 – 33: Nature of future life. Resurrection exists, not in a material sense, but in a spiritual sense. John says resurrection is the fruit of faith and Eucharist. Jn 5, 19 – 25; 5, 26 – 30 (apocalyptic language)- future nature of resurrection. This thought give way to the realized nature of eschatology. Basis of resurrection is faith in the father through the son. Life includes resurrection. Fullness of life includes resurrection. Jn 11, 22 – 26: symbol of the fullness of resurrection of one who believes in Jesus. Faith of the Old Testament is deepened by associating it with Jesus Christ.
Jn 6, 54 -58: Eucharist: The reception of the Eucharist assures the final resurrection. The life communicated through Eucharist is communitarian, which ultimately proceeds from the Father Himself. It connects Jesus’ resurrection and our own. Acts 24, 14 ff: Paul speaks of the resurrection of the good and wicked. Heb 6, 1 – 2: Paul speaks of resurrection based on Christ and the Holy spirit. (Christological and Pneumetological). 1 Cor 15: Without the resurrection of Christ preaching is impossible.
Characteristics of the Risen Soma
1. Splendour (doxa): The doxa of the Father- the luminous body at mount Tabore. The risen body will be enveloped by this glory.
2. Incurruption: It is the result of fullness of life. In resurrection all bodily necessities like nutrition, procreation etc. will perish.
3. Soma pneumaticon (Spiritual Body): Resurrection means, the flowering of the indwelling Spirit. 1 Cor 15, 51 – 58: Transformation of both the living and the dead. The dead will be transformed like Jesus at resurrection. The living as Jesus at transfiguration. Rom 8, 11 emphasises the pneumatic character of resurrection.
The Christian is in the risen Lord and the Spirit dwells in him. Immanence and indwelling are inseparable. In resurrection our soma will be fully possessed by the Spirit of the Lord.
Theological Reflections:
Formerly the preaching of the church on resurrection was on minor issues like nature of resurrection, its manner etc.
Identity of the body; it is to be understood on the basis of resurrection and Easter appearance of Jesus’ risen body. It is different from the physical body (because it was difficult to identify him; he appeared in another form). There is an identity of the person. But the form is different. The appearance of Jesus are pictorial narration by a historical and objective appearance. Paul also had a similar experience. Acts 9, 3ff. Paul testifies he saw the risen Lord himself. That means the risen Jesus has a new transfigured body, i.e., a spiritual body. 1 Cor 15, 44.
Man’s resurrection: What is said about Jesus’ risen body agrees with Paul’s saying about our body. There is a continuity of the person, but in a different form. Man will raise with a spiritualised body.
Resurrection and baptism
Resurrection is the culmination of the baptismal life. It is not something happens after death alone. It starts from baptism. The connection between baptism and resurrection is seen in Eph 5, 26; Rom 6, 4. They are two phases of a single movement. Our inward man is renewed day by day. 2 Cor 4, 16. Dogma of the resurrection of the dead is a pneumatic action. It should be understood in relation to Christ’s resurrection, man’s initial resurrection at baptism, Eucharistic communion and the proper resurrection.
Bibliography
“Apocalyptism” in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume
Moltmann, Theology of Hope
Moltmann, The Coming of God: Christian Eschatology
Moltmann, The Future of Creation
Richardson, “Hope” in A New Dictionary of Christian Theology
‘Hope” in Sacramentum Mundi
Theology of Hope: On the Ground and implication of Hope
“Hope” in Dictionary of Biblical Theology
“Elpis” in TDNT
Karl Rahner, “The Hermeneutics of Eschatological Assertion” in Theological Investigation 4, 323 – 354.
Karl Rahner, “Theology of Hope” in Theological Investigation 10, 242 – 250.
Peter C. Phan, Eternity in Time: A study of Karl Rahner’s Eschatology
Schanckenburg, God’s Rule and Kingdom: A Thorough study of Biblical Eschatology
J. Richards, Death and after
Monika Hellwie, Death and Hope
Mussnar Faranz, ed., Readings in Christian Eschatology
Karl Rahner, Theology of death
Concilium 4
Boros, We are Future
September 29, 2007
SALVATION HISTORY
The work of the Spirit of God is manifested in the history of salvation, in the prehistoric narratives, patriarchal history the mission of the prophets, life and mission of Jesus and the life of the church.
SALVATION HISTORY
Bible is the book of the people of God. God is the agent and the content of the divine revelation. The intervention of the God in history aims at the salvation of the people. Thus the salvation history becomes the history of the people of God. The divine intervention can be manifested through different stages and those stages can be seen as the work of the Spirit of god. We shall try to see those stages or the work of the Spirit of God in this endeavor.
They can be grouped as the following.
1. creation of the universe - pre-historical narratives
2. vocation of the forefathers –Abraham to Moses
3. formation of a nation- Moses to David
4. Preparation for the immediate intervention of God (through prophets, kings and other messiahs)-David to Christ.
5. actualization of the promises (salvation through Jesus messiah-Christ )
6. Continuation of the effect of the salvation- Through Church till the second coming.
1. Creation of the Universe and Man
The bible begins by explaining the origins of the world and of the mankind. We do not go detail into the reasons why these first twelve chapters were included in the sacred scripture though it has no historical evidences but we concentrates on the divine intervention of the Spirit of God. At the very beginning of the bible we read that the Spirit of God was hovering over the water. And we see two creation accounts in the genesis- 1, 1- 2, 4 and 2, 4 - 3, 24. These two narratives are complementary and logical though they are from two different sources (j&p). The first narration relates to the creation of the universe the summit of which is the man and the second account to the man’s creation and the destiny. The work of the Spirit is well manifested in the creation of the world because the Spirit of God imparted an order to the universe where there was only chaos and disorder. Moreover the earth was null and void. It has been pointed out that the work of creation was set forth in an order that moves from the general to the particular and from the less perfect to the more perfect: and the plan and the divine intervention in the creation can be seen better in the systematic arrangement and the decoration of the universe. We shall see the work of the spirit in the creation briefly in the following chart.
Creation
Separation Decoration
God separates light from darkness God makes sun, moon
and the stars
He separates water above from water below. He adorns air with the birds and the
water with the fishes
He separates the dry land from the waters below. God decorates the earth with
beasts and MAN
The God rests on the 7th day as man should rest on the Sabbath
Thus the world was created by the wisdom of the lord; everything was planned in order and harmony. God created the world with his omnipotence. “God said…and it was so”. God’s words to man and the woman (1, 27) reveal the special intervention of God in forming the first man and the woman. The dignity of man lies in the image and likeness of God.
The second creation account of man situates the context of the salvation history. Having described the formation of the man and the woman and their first state it records the fall and its consequences and indicates the need of man to be saved. Adam is created from the clay and the breath of God. It means man is different from all other creatures. Though he is like God he is not God; though he is like beasts he is not one of the beasts.
There is a continuous progress in the narratives of the book of Genesis. The whole book speaks of the sin of man, punishment by God and the mercy of God. The third chapter describes it. Man rebelled against God through his inordinate pride and disobedience. The punishment naturally followed it. They were expelled from the paradise. Thus Satan, sin and death came into the world. But the mercy of God did not abandon them. God offered them a saviour. This part is called the proto evangelium (3, 15). The following chapters mainly elaborate these themes. The sin of Cain, followed by the punishment and the mercy of God, the expansion of the sin in the 6th chapter and the punishment of the flood and the covenant of God, and finally the sin of Babel and the punishment of the chaotic language give proof to this. But we do not see the promise or the mercy of God in this section but the author logically connects this part with the call of Abraham.
Here we see a background for the whole drama of the history of salvation and through the call of Abraham God unfolds the salvation history.
2. Vocation of Forefathers –Abraham to Moses
At this point the story of mankind was moving not in the way God intended. The movement has been away from God to the kingdom of Satan. So God wanted to call mankind back to his presence. The chapter 12 onwards we see it. He elected Abraham as the vessel of salvation. He offered him a land, prosperity and prosperity. He shall be a blessing for the whole generation (12, 1-3). The work of God can be seen more clearly at this point. He elected Abraham to be his man and a generation. Then God promised him of the future. Finally God made a covenant with him. These three things become the undercurrent of the history of salvation of the Old Testament. The promise of the prosterity is being fulfilled through the birth of a son Isaac and Abraham reaffirmed his faith in God in the mount of Moria. Thus the aged man and the woman Sara had their children by the power of the work of God and Abraham was known as the father of the faithful in the history of salvation. The story of Isaac was eclipsed by the story of Abraham and the story of Jacob. Still we see God renewing with him the promise made to his father.
God selected Jacob as his dear. We do not know the reason. It is His decision. He was made prominent over his brother and he was given the birth right. However he was also cheated by his uncle Laban. Jacob had 12 sons when he returned to his father’s land. On the way to his land God encountered with him at Peniel and he was renamed as Israel. Henceforth story of Israel is unfolded. The 12 sons of Jacob- Israel is called the head of the 12 tribes. Even at the time of famine the Israel was sent to Egypt and God protected their lives. As a means to it the slavery of Joseph caused by the envy of the other 11 brothers was made a blessing. Thus the whole tribes of Israel came to Egypt.
3. Formation of a nation- Moses to David
The people of Israel became so strong in Egypt and the rulers of Egypt feared that the sons of Jacob would out number the Egyptians. Hence they started to persecute them. God listened to their cry and he called Moses to be their saviour. God gave him the power to impress the Pharaoh and also God revealed to him the name-YHWH. Moses worked ten miracles in Egypt of which the last one made the Egyptians let Israelites go away. Thus there came the practice and the feast of Passover.
The journey of the people from Egypt to the Promised Land was the manifestation of God’s power. By the work of the Spirit of God Israelites crossed over the red see miraculously. God accompanied them in the desert as the pillar of cloud and the fire protecting them from all dangers. He gave them water at Meriba..., punished and rescued them at the time of their disobedience, nourished them with Manna and quails. The Israelites were a disorganized group when they started their journey. As they proceeded they had to fight with many gentile inhabitants of Canaan. All these experiences were the part of their formation and God was directing them to the Promised Land. These are the years of training in obedience and trust in the providence of God. These were the period when Israelites rebelled severely against God and these were the period when they experienced divine providence abundantly. Only in the desert they adopted a common life, purpose, law and a leadership and gradually the mob became a people. When the God commanded them to make an ark of the covenant and the tent of the Tabernacle they were becoming a religious community. God made a covenant with them in the Mount Sinai and through that covenant they became the sons of God and God became their father. The history of salvation got a pace and a direction at the Sinai covenant. Thus Moses became the mediator and the saviour in the salvation history of Israel and promised them a prophet like Moses in the future (Deut 18, 15).
When Moses died Joshua took the leadership of the people. The task before him was to cross over the river Jordan and conquer the Canaanites. God worked miracle when the foot of the preists who carried the Ark of the Covenant touched the waters of the river. The people walked through the dried land when the waters withdrew. They conquered Canaanites at Jericho only with the power of God. Within a short period they conquered the whole land and shared the land. Thus they became a nation without a king and the promise given to Abraham was fulfilled partly. All these period God elected judges to guide and protect the people from all the dangers and keep them in unity.
The last of these judges and the first of the prophets was Samuel. YHWH worked in him and he led the people with all the vigour of the Spirit of God. When the people demanded for a king after the manner of their neighboring nations he anointed Saul first as their king and later David. David was an extra ordinary man; YHWH miraculously raised him to the throne of the people of god. He was a shepherd boy, warrior, hero, resourceful lover, bandit chieftain, poet, king, sinner, penitent, indulgent father, faithful friend, founder of an eternal dynasty etc.
4. Preparation for the immediate intervention of God-(David to Christ.)
During the reign of David a new direction was given to the hope of salvation. While he was mindful of building a house for the lord, the Lord promised that HE would build a house for David that is a dynasty. “Moreover the Lord declares to you that the Lord will make you a house…. I will raise up your son after you ... I will establish the throne of his kingdom for ever. I will be his father and he shall be my son. … And your house and your kingdom shall be made sure for ever before me; your throne shall be established for ever” (2Sam 7, 11). In Psalm 2 we are told that the kingdom of David will be universal, not only in time but also in extent. According to the prophesy of Nathan the descendents of David entered in a special way into the plan of God. The people then onwards began to expect a Messiah prophesied who will possess the kingdom both universal in extent and eternal in duration.
While we saw a divergence in the prehistoric times since people went away from God as the result of the effects and the diffusion of sin, we see a convergence here i.e., Gen 1 onwards. The hopes of the whole world were directed toward the Davidic dynasty. As per the promises given to him God lifted one of his sons, Solomon to the throne and he was given divine wisdom. He built a temple for the lord. But because of the influence of his foreign wives he left the God of Israel. Rahoboam succeeded him in the office but he was of poor diplomacy and the northern tribes seceded from him under the leadership of Jeroboam. Thus the kingdom was divided into Judea and Israel. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin formed the kingdom of Judea and the rest of the ten tribes formed the latter kingdom.
But in order to prevent the people from going to the southern kingdom for religious worship in Jerusalem Jeroboam erected new sanctuaries at Samaria, Dan and Bethel. This caused apostasy in the northern kingdom and the prophets came forward against this.
The pre-exilic prophets:All the men of God from the time of Moses till the exilic times were called the pre exilic prophets. The works of the prophets were not an easy task and the phrase “the reward of the prophet” meant generally the sufferings, silencing, imprisonment, death etc. But the prophets were unable to escape from their mission and they prophesied vehemently even at the verge of death because the Spirit of God working in their lives was so strong. However the main characteristics of the prophets were the internal spirituality, social justice and the unique worship of the true God. The prophet Elijah who confronted with the prophets of Baal at Mount Carmel was a typical example of O.T. prophets. The Spirit of God working in the prophet urged him to oppose the sin of idolatry. After destroying all the prophets of Baal he blamed the king Ahab who cooked the plot against Naboth and possessed his vineyard. It was a cry against the injustice. After Elijah, Elisha came to the office.
They were followed by the writing prophets namely Amos, Hosea… While Amos spoke roughly against all sorts of social injustices prevailed in the northern kingdom at the time of the reign of Jeroboam II, Hosea spoke against all these in a different tone- in a tone of love relationship. God loved his people so much that he cannot leave them (Hos 11, 9). He uses the metaphor of marriage. However these warnings were in vain and the people did not pay heed to their words. During the periods of political uprisings and turmoil the kings of Israel changed their loyalty from Assyria to Egypt from time to time. Finally in 724 during the reign of Hosea Shalmanasser V, the king of Assyria regained his power and attacked Israel. He dethroned Hosea and captured Samaria by 721; deported a lot of people from the country to Assyria and brought foreigners to the land. As a result there emerged a mixed group in Samaria due to marriage with the foreigners: and the Jews later accused them of racial impurity.
Ministry of the prophets in Judah is evident in the times before and after the fall of Israel. Even when the king of Israel- Pekah, and other kings of Aram and Syria came against Judah as the king Ahaz of Judah rejected their invitation to attack Assyria, the prophet Isaiah promised that God will protect them (Isa7,5-8). The Immanuel prophesy of the first Isaiah (7, 14-16) - though its immediate connotation was about the son of the king to be born- is interpreted as the prophesy about the Messiah to come. The people of Judah experienced the power of the Lord when Sennacherib came against them in 701 B.C. Then prophet Isaiah prophesied in the name of the Lord against Sennacherib (2Kgs 19, 35) and he had to retreat as one lakh of his soldiers died in the camp; Jews believed that it was because of the intervention of the angel of the Lord.
B.C. 626 onwards Babylon began to grow as a powerful kingdom in the Middle East. In 610 they conquered Assyria completely. After the death of Josea the kings of Judah oscillated in their loyalty to the foreign rulers. Johoachim favoured Egypt and hence Nebuchadnezzar dethroned him and appointed his son Johoachin the king in 598. But after three months he was also taken to Babylon along with a lot of citizens. This is called the first phase of the Babylonian exile. Thereafter Zedechia became the ruler in Judah. But he also changed his loyalty to Egypt in 591. The prophet Jeremiah opposed this position vehemently (Jer 27,1f; 28, 10-11; 28, 24). Nebuchadnezzar killed the sons of Zedechia before his sight and he was taken to Babylon and a lot of elite people too. This is the second phase of the Babylonian exile that took place in 587. But when Cyrus became the ruler of the Middle East and Persia, he allowed the Israelites to go back to their home land in 537 B.C. So Deutro Isaiah speaks about their coming back as “a voice cries out: in the wilderness prepare the way of the Lord…and the rough places a plain” (Isa 40, 3-5). The scripture assures that it is the Lord of Israel who anointed the king Cyrus to deliver the people from the exile. “Thus says the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus whose right hand I have grasped to subdue nations before him…for the sake of Jacob my servant and Israel my chosen, I call you… though you do not know me…” (45, 1-5). Thus the scripture makes it clear that it is the Spirit of the Lord who works and controls the whole nations. The idea is repeatedly stated in the book of Daniel too (Dan 4, 35). Daniel which is written in the second century B.C. when Israelites were under the dominion of the Selucian rule, also speaks of the universal lordship of the God of Israel.
Though the exile was a great blow to the people externally, God made it also a means for a lot of blessings. Their spirituality developed anything like. Instead of formalism they came back to their life: Instead of ritual sacrifices there were spiritiual offerings and synagogue worships. Ezekiel and second Isaiah contributed to their dry bones a new life.
5. Actualization of the promises
The entrance of Jesus into the world was an event of inexhaustible depth of meaning. The incarnation of Jesus into the world was God’s most intimate step into the human history. “but God who is rich in mercy, out of the great love with which he loved us ---made us alive together with Christ…”(Eph 2,4-5).
The power of the Spirit of God was evident in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. When Jesus started his ministry he proclaimed “the Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour”(Lk 4,18). The whole life of Jesus was the manifestation of this power of the Spirit of the lord. At the very virginal birth of Jesus we see the Spirit of the lord. “The Holy Spirit will come upon you and the power of the Most High will overshadow you ..”(Lk 1, 35). The same overshadowing of the Spirit of God that took place at the Ark of the Covenant. In baptism we see Mark presenting Jesus as the son of God. So he has the power of God eksousia. This power of God is manifested in the word and deed of Christ. The deeds of Jesus include the exorcisms and healing miracles. Mark presents these miracles as the eye openers and they reveal who Christ is.
Mathew presents Jesus as the new teacher and the new Moses and also above Moses because as the new Moses He is the new law maker. Mathew presents the miracles as the direct attacks made by Christ on the kingdom of Satan from which man must be saved. The power of Christ is the same power of the Father and the Spirit. Through his life and ministry he was conquering sin, Satan and death. As Satan’s kingdom is weakened, the kingdom of heaven grows in power. “But if it is by the Spirit of God that I drive out the devils…” (Mt 12, 28). John presents Jesus as the light of the world (Jn 8, 12), the door (10, 7-10) good shepherd (10, 11-18) life and resurrection (11, 25). All the miracles according to John are signs which reveal who Jesus is. He called the twelve disciples to continue his ministry and this was the new beginning of the new people of God or the new Israel. On the day of Pentecost thus Church was inaugurated solemnly by the work of the Spirit of the risen Lord Jesus. Church is the mystical body of Christ. But the actual work of salvation and the power of the Spirit of God fulfilled at the end of the life of Jesus. The supreme love of god is manifested in the crucifixion of the son for the sinful mankind. He humbled himself in obedience and accepted death on the cross (Phil 2, 8). Christ’s death was the victory over death. He conquered the devastating forces of sin- vices, pride and disobedience. According to the gospel of John the death of Christ on the cross was the hour of glorification.
While Jesus won over the sin by dying, he conquered the death by his resurrection. Thus the promise given to Adam in the paradise came into true. When we speak of the power of the Spirit of God we must remember the death and resurrection of Christ. He rose in his glorious body and that body was the instrument through which the Spirit would be poured upon the faithful. As St. John sees the death, resurrection and the giving of the Holy Spirit as the one and the same action of the paschal mystery, we see Jesus giving his Spirit at the very day of his death. “One of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear and at once blood and the water came out (19, 34). Immediately after the resurrection he breathed on the disciples and imparted his Spirit upon them (20, 19-21). According to the Lukan version on the day of Pentecost Jesus gave his Spirit to all who have gathered at the cenacle of Zion. Thus they were made the temples of the Holy Spirit and sons of God.
6. Continuation of the Effect of the Salvation
Salvation is the unique possession of Jesus Christ. All of us have share in it only if we are in union with him. In order to have union with him we should have faith in Him which means acceptance of Jesus as our saviour. Sacraments are next element of this union. The baptism which effects the union with Christ who died and rose is the basic sacrament. Now we do not see the miracles which Jesus and his disciples performed in the N.T. period in its literal senses. The place of those miracles is replaced by the sacraments and these sacraments are the miracles of the new era. The Spirit of God works through these sacraments at present in the life and ministry of Church.
Church possesses the truth and the power of Christ. Through it Christ continues to teach, to overcome the Satan and to communicate the life of the spirit. In Church one contacts the saviour and experiences the salvation. While sin drove men away from the paradise or the goodness the life in Christ, the Spirit brought him back to the state of goodness. The process of coming to God which started at the time of Abraham is completed in Christ and it is being continued till the end of the time. The Church is expecting a Parousia when Christ will be all in all. In him man will regain the lost state. The salvation which Christ accomplished is perfect and each man must personalize it subjectively in the Church; sacraments are the means to it.
Work of the Spirit in the church: the Spirit of God in Christ brings us in union with God the father (2Cor 5, 21). We are made the temples of the Holy Spirit (1Cor 6, 19), citizens of heaven (Phil 3, 20), brothers of Christ (Rom 8, 29), children of his father (Eph1, 5-6), co-victors over Satan- we who are united with Christ become the sharers in his victory too, spiritual descendent of Abraham (Gal 3, 26-29) and united to each other in Christ.
The glorified Christ has completed his mission on the day of Pentecost after pouring out the spirit. The Spirit enlightens the Church by making her aware of the treasures of revelation that Christ has deposited in her. Revelation ended with Christ but the Spirit continues to enlighten and interpret the church. Spirit sanctifies the Church and gives her life and makes her the temple (1cor 3, 16). Now the gifts we see in the Church are also because of the work of the spirit. He is active in the church. All the varieties of the gifts are inspired by one and the same Spirit who apportions to each one individually as he wills (1Cor 12, 4.11). Pouring out these gifts the Holy Spirit bears the Church forward to witness to Christ and sustains her in that witness. Today Spirit raises up missionaries and the apostles in the Church and supports the Christians in their witnesses till the second coming of Christ. The Parousia is the completion of the history of salvation. Then, Christ delivers the kingdom to God the father destroying every rule and every authority and every power (1cor 15, 22-24). On that final and the perfect day of consecration of the history “we shall be with the lord” (1Thess 4, 17).
Conclusion
God had demonstrated his supreme power over the world by creating the whole universe and as the culmination of the creation he created the man in his image and likeness. The work of the Spirit of God was well manifested in the universe when he formed the family of Abraham. The work of the Spirit of God was evident in the election of Jacob, his twelve tribes, preservation of their family in Egypt, the election and the call of Moses, the ten plagues, crossing over of the sea of reed, covenant at Mt. Sinai etc. Then God spoke to his people through Law and through prophets. They warned, instructed and foretold the fate of the people and asked them to follow the way of the lord. When the time is fulfilled God sent his only begotten son to the world. It is the progressive entrance of God into the history of man (Jn1, 1-5 .10-14).
In the paradise sin separated man from God and among themselves. Christ’s birth was meant to bring them back to those relationships. The whole story of the salvation is thus the love of God and the work of the spirit, who is trying to bring back the mankind which went away from him by sin. The saving work of the Spirit of God or the work of God which started at the very moment of man’s sin in paradise was continuing through the history, through different stages as we have seen above. It was actualized in Christ objectively but as God respects the human freedom, man has to personalize it individually. Hence there is an already but not yet aspect. The work of the Spirit of God in the salvation history will be over by end of the history only which is the Parousia of the Lord Christ.
SALVATION HISTORY
Bible is the book of the people of God. God is the agent and the content of the divine revelation. The intervention of the God in history aims at the salvation of the people. Thus the salvation history becomes the history of the people of God. The divine intervention can be manifested through different stages and those stages can be seen as the work of the Spirit of god. We shall try to see those stages or the work of the Spirit of God in this endeavor.
They can be grouped as the following.
1. creation of the universe - pre-historical narratives
2. vocation of the forefathers –Abraham to Moses
3. formation of a nation- Moses to David
4. Preparation for the immediate intervention of God (through prophets, kings and other messiahs)-David to Christ.
5. actualization of the promises (salvation through Jesus messiah-Christ )
6. Continuation of the effect of the salvation- Through Church till the second coming.
1. Creation of the Universe and Man
The bible begins by explaining the origins of the world and of the mankind. We do not go detail into the reasons why these first twelve chapters were included in the sacred scripture though it has no historical evidences but we concentrates on the divine intervention of the Spirit of God. At the very beginning of the bible we read that the Spirit of God was hovering over the water. And we see two creation accounts in the genesis- 1, 1- 2, 4 and 2, 4 - 3, 24. These two narratives are complementary and logical though they are from two different sources (j&p). The first narration relates to the creation of the universe the summit of which is the man and the second account to the man’s creation and the destiny. The work of the Spirit is well manifested in the creation of the world because the Spirit of God imparted an order to the universe where there was only chaos and disorder. Moreover the earth was null and void. It has been pointed out that the work of creation was set forth in an order that moves from the general to the particular and from the less perfect to the more perfect: and the plan and the divine intervention in the creation can be seen better in the systematic arrangement and the decoration of the universe. We shall see the work of the spirit in the creation briefly in the following chart.
Creation
Separation Decoration
God separates light from darkness God makes sun, moon
and the stars
He separates water above from water below. He adorns air with the birds and the
water with the fishes
He separates the dry land from the waters below. God decorates the earth with
beasts and MAN
The God rests on the 7th day as man should rest on the Sabbath
Thus the world was created by the wisdom of the lord; everything was planned in order and harmony. God created the world with his omnipotence. “God said…and it was so”. God’s words to man and the woman (1, 27) reveal the special intervention of God in forming the first man and the woman. The dignity of man lies in the image and likeness of God.
The second creation account of man situates the context of the salvation history. Having described the formation of the man and the woman and their first state it records the fall and its consequences and indicates the need of man to be saved. Adam is created from the clay and the breath of God. It means man is different from all other creatures. Though he is like God he is not God; though he is like beasts he is not one of the beasts.
There is a continuous progress in the narratives of the book of Genesis. The whole book speaks of the sin of man, punishment by God and the mercy of God. The third chapter describes it. Man rebelled against God through his inordinate pride and disobedience. The punishment naturally followed it. They were expelled from the paradise. Thus Satan, sin and death came into the world. But the mercy of God did not abandon them. God offered them a saviour. This part is called the proto evangelium (3, 15). The following chapters mainly elaborate these themes. The sin of Cain, followed by the punishment and the mercy of God, the expansion of the sin in the 6th chapter and the punishment of the flood and the covenant of God, and finally the sin of Babel and the punishment of the chaotic language give proof to this. But we do not see the promise or the mercy of God in this section but the author logically connects this part with the call of Abraham.
Here we see a background for the whole drama of the history of salvation and through the call of Abraham God unfolds the salvation history.
2. Vocation of Forefathers –Abraham to Moses
At this point the story of mankind was moving not in the way God intended. The movement has been away from God to the kingdom of Satan. So God wanted to call mankind back to his presence. The chapter 12 onwards we see it. He elected Abraham as the vessel of salvation. He offered him a land, prosperity and prosperity. He shall be a blessing for the whole generation (12, 1-3). The work of God can be seen more clearly at this point. He elected Abraham to be his man and a generation. Then God promised him of the future. Finally God made a covenant with him. These three things become the undercurrent of the history of salvation of the Old Testament. The promise of the prosterity is being fulfilled through the birth of a son Isaac and Abraham reaffirmed his faith in God in the mount of Moria. Thus the aged man and the woman Sara had their children by the power of the work of God and Abraham was known as the father of the faithful in the history of salvation. The story of Isaac was eclipsed by the story of Abraham and the story of Jacob. Still we see God renewing with him the promise made to his father.
God selected Jacob as his dear. We do not know the reason. It is His decision. He was made prominent over his brother and he was given the birth right. However he was also cheated by his uncle Laban. Jacob had 12 sons when he returned to his father’s land. On the way to his land God encountered with him at Peniel and he was renamed as Israel. Henceforth story of Israel is unfolded. The 12 sons of Jacob- Israel is called the head of the 12 tribes. Even at the time of famine the Israel was sent to Egypt and God protected their lives. As a means to it the slavery of Joseph caused by the envy of the other 11 brothers was made a blessing. Thus the whole tribes of Israel came to Egypt.
3. Formation of a nation- Moses to David
The people of Israel became so strong in Egypt and the rulers of Egypt feared that the sons of Jacob would out number the Egyptians. Hence they started to persecute them. God listened to their cry and he called Moses to be their saviour. God gave him the power to impress the Pharaoh and also God revealed to him the name-YHWH. Moses worked ten miracles in Egypt of which the last one made the Egyptians let Israelites go away. Thus there came the practice and the feast of Passover.
The journey of the people from Egypt to the Promised Land was the manifestation of God’s power. By the work of the Spirit of God Israelites crossed over the red see miraculously. God accompanied them in the desert as the pillar of cloud and the fire protecting them from all dangers. He gave them water at Meriba..., punished and rescued them at the time of their disobedience, nourished them with Manna and quails. The Israelites were a disorganized group when they started their journey. As they proceeded they had to fight with many gentile inhabitants of Canaan. All these experiences were the part of their formation and God was directing them to the Promised Land. These are the years of training in obedience and trust in the providence of God. These were the period when Israelites rebelled severely against God and these were the period when they experienced divine providence abundantly. Only in the desert they adopted a common life, purpose, law and a leadership and gradually the mob became a people. When the God commanded them to make an ark of the covenant and the tent of the Tabernacle they were becoming a religious community. God made a covenant with them in the Mount Sinai and through that covenant they became the sons of God and God became their father. The history of salvation got a pace and a direction at the Sinai covenant. Thus Moses became the mediator and the saviour in the salvation history of Israel and promised them a prophet like Moses in the future (Deut 18, 15).
When Moses died Joshua took the leadership of the people. The task before him was to cross over the river Jordan and conquer the Canaanites. God worked miracle when the foot of the preists who carried the Ark of the Covenant touched the waters of the river. The people walked through the dried land when the waters withdrew. They conquered Canaanites at Jericho only with the power of God. Within a short period they conquered the whole land and shared the land. Thus they became a nation without a king and the promise given to Abraham was fulfilled partly. All these period God elected judges to guide and protect the people from all the dangers and keep them in unity.
The last of these judges and the first of the prophets was Samuel. YHWH worked in him and he led the people with all the vigour of the Spirit of God. When the people demanded for a king after the manner of their neighboring nations he anointed Saul first as their king and later David. David was an extra ordinary man; YHWH miraculously raised him to the throne of the people of god. He was a shepherd boy, warrior, hero, resourceful lover, bandit chieftain, poet, king, sinner, penitent, indulgent father, faithful friend, founder of an eternal dynasty etc.
4. Preparation for the immediate intervention of God-(David to Christ.)
During the reign of David a new direction was given to the hope of salvation. While he was mindful of building a house for the lord, the Lord promised that HE would build a house for David that is a dynasty. “Moreover the Lord declares to you that the Lord will make you a house…. I will raise up your son after you ... I will establish the throne of his kingdom for ever. I will be his father and he shall be my son. … And your house and your kingdom shall be made sure for ever before me; your throne shall be established for ever” (2Sam 7, 11). In Psalm 2 we are told that the kingdom of David will be universal, not only in time but also in extent. According to the prophesy of Nathan the descendents of David entered in a special way into the plan of God. The people then onwards began to expect a Messiah prophesied who will possess the kingdom both universal in extent and eternal in duration.
While we saw a divergence in the prehistoric times since people went away from God as the result of the effects and the diffusion of sin, we see a convergence here i.e., Gen 1 onwards. The hopes of the whole world were directed toward the Davidic dynasty. As per the promises given to him God lifted one of his sons, Solomon to the throne and he was given divine wisdom. He built a temple for the lord. But because of the influence of his foreign wives he left the God of Israel. Rahoboam succeeded him in the office but he was of poor diplomacy and the northern tribes seceded from him under the leadership of Jeroboam. Thus the kingdom was divided into Judea and Israel. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin formed the kingdom of Judea and the rest of the ten tribes formed the latter kingdom.
But in order to prevent the people from going to the southern kingdom for religious worship in Jerusalem Jeroboam erected new sanctuaries at Samaria, Dan and Bethel. This caused apostasy in the northern kingdom and the prophets came forward against this.
The pre-exilic prophets:All the men of God from the time of Moses till the exilic times were called the pre exilic prophets. The works of the prophets were not an easy task and the phrase “the reward of the prophet” meant generally the sufferings, silencing, imprisonment, death etc. But the prophets were unable to escape from their mission and they prophesied vehemently even at the verge of death because the Spirit of God working in their lives was so strong. However the main characteristics of the prophets were the internal spirituality, social justice and the unique worship of the true God. The prophet Elijah who confronted with the prophets of Baal at Mount Carmel was a typical example of O.T. prophets. The Spirit of God working in the prophet urged him to oppose the sin of idolatry. After destroying all the prophets of Baal he blamed the king Ahab who cooked the plot against Naboth and possessed his vineyard. It was a cry against the injustice. After Elijah, Elisha came to the office.
They were followed by the writing prophets namely Amos, Hosea… While Amos spoke roughly against all sorts of social injustices prevailed in the northern kingdom at the time of the reign of Jeroboam II, Hosea spoke against all these in a different tone- in a tone of love relationship. God loved his people so much that he cannot leave them (Hos 11, 9). He uses the metaphor of marriage. However these warnings were in vain and the people did not pay heed to their words. During the periods of political uprisings and turmoil the kings of Israel changed their loyalty from Assyria to Egypt from time to time. Finally in 724 during the reign of Hosea Shalmanasser V, the king of Assyria regained his power and attacked Israel. He dethroned Hosea and captured Samaria by 721; deported a lot of people from the country to Assyria and brought foreigners to the land. As a result there emerged a mixed group in Samaria due to marriage with the foreigners: and the Jews later accused them of racial impurity.
Ministry of the prophets in Judah is evident in the times before and after the fall of Israel. Even when the king of Israel- Pekah, and other kings of Aram and Syria came against Judah as the king Ahaz of Judah rejected their invitation to attack Assyria, the prophet Isaiah promised that God will protect them (Isa7,5-8). The Immanuel prophesy of the first Isaiah (7, 14-16) - though its immediate connotation was about the son of the king to be born- is interpreted as the prophesy about the Messiah to come. The people of Judah experienced the power of the Lord when Sennacherib came against them in 701 B.C. Then prophet Isaiah prophesied in the name of the Lord against Sennacherib (2Kgs 19, 35) and he had to retreat as one lakh of his soldiers died in the camp; Jews believed that it was because of the intervention of the angel of the Lord.
B.C. 626 onwards Babylon began to grow as a powerful kingdom in the Middle East. In 610 they conquered Assyria completely. After the death of Josea the kings of Judah oscillated in their loyalty to the foreign rulers. Johoachim favoured Egypt and hence Nebuchadnezzar dethroned him and appointed his son Johoachin the king in 598. But after three months he was also taken to Babylon along with a lot of citizens. This is called the first phase of the Babylonian exile. Thereafter Zedechia became the ruler in Judah. But he also changed his loyalty to Egypt in 591. The prophet Jeremiah opposed this position vehemently (Jer 27,1f; 28, 10-11; 28, 24). Nebuchadnezzar killed the sons of Zedechia before his sight and he was taken to Babylon and a lot of elite people too. This is the second phase of the Babylonian exile that took place in 587. But when Cyrus became the ruler of the Middle East and Persia, he allowed the Israelites to go back to their home land in 537 B.C. So Deutro Isaiah speaks about their coming back as “a voice cries out: in the wilderness prepare the way of the Lord…and the rough places a plain” (Isa 40, 3-5). The scripture assures that it is the Lord of Israel who anointed the king Cyrus to deliver the people from the exile. “Thus says the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus whose right hand I have grasped to subdue nations before him…for the sake of Jacob my servant and Israel my chosen, I call you… though you do not know me…” (45, 1-5). Thus the scripture makes it clear that it is the Spirit of the Lord who works and controls the whole nations. The idea is repeatedly stated in the book of Daniel too (Dan 4, 35). Daniel which is written in the second century B.C. when Israelites were under the dominion of the Selucian rule, also speaks of the universal lordship of the God of Israel.
Though the exile was a great blow to the people externally, God made it also a means for a lot of blessings. Their spirituality developed anything like. Instead of formalism they came back to their life: Instead of ritual sacrifices there were spiritiual offerings and synagogue worships. Ezekiel and second Isaiah contributed to their dry bones a new life.
5. Actualization of the promises
The entrance of Jesus into the world was an event of inexhaustible depth of meaning. The incarnation of Jesus into the world was God’s most intimate step into the human history. “but God who is rich in mercy, out of the great love with which he loved us ---made us alive together with Christ…”(Eph 2,4-5).
The power of the Spirit of God was evident in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. When Jesus started his ministry he proclaimed “the Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour”(Lk 4,18). The whole life of Jesus was the manifestation of this power of the Spirit of the lord. At the very virginal birth of Jesus we see the Spirit of the lord. “The Holy Spirit will come upon you and the power of the Most High will overshadow you ..”(Lk 1, 35). The same overshadowing of the Spirit of God that took place at the Ark of the Covenant. In baptism we see Mark presenting Jesus as the son of God. So he has the power of God eksousia. This power of God is manifested in the word and deed of Christ. The deeds of Jesus include the exorcisms and healing miracles. Mark presents these miracles as the eye openers and they reveal who Christ is.
Mathew presents Jesus as the new teacher and the new Moses and also above Moses because as the new Moses He is the new law maker. Mathew presents the miracles as the direct attacks made by Christ on the kingdom of Satan from which man must be saved. The power of Christ is the same power of the Father and the Spirit. Through his life and ministry he was conquering sin, Satan and death. As Satan’s kingdom is weakened, the kingdom of heaven grows in power. “But if it is by the Spirit of God that I drive out the devils…” (Mt 12, 28). John presents Jesus as the light of the world (Jn 8, 12), the door (10, 7-10) good shepherd (10, 11-18) life and resurrection (11, 25). All the miracles according to John are signs which reveal who Jesus is. He called the twelve disciples to continue his ministry and this was the new beginning of the new people of God or the new Israel. On the day of Pentecost thus Church was inaugurated solemnly by the work of the Spirit of the risen Lord Jesus. Church is the mystical body of Christ. But the actual work of salvation and the power of the Spirit of God fulfilled at the end of the life of Jesus. The supreme love of god is manifested in the crucifixion of the son for the sinful mankind. He humbled himself in obedience and accepted death on the cross (Phil 2, 8). Christ’s death was the victory over death. He conquered the devastating forces of sin- vices, pride and disobedience. According to the gospel of John the death of Christ on the cross was the hour of glorification.
While Jesus won over the sin by dying, he conquered the death by his resurrection. Thus the promise given to Adam in the paradise came into true. When we speak of the power of the Spirit of God we must remember the death and resurrection of Christ. He rose in his glorious body and that body was the instrument through which the Spirit would be poured upon the faithful. As St. John sees the death, resurrection and the giving of the Holy Spirit as the one and the same action of the paschal mystery, we see Jesus giving his Spirit at the very day of his death. “One of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear and at once blood and the water came out (19, 34). Immediately after the resurrection he breathed on the disciples and imparted his Spirit upon them (20, 19-21). According to the Lukan version on the day of Pentecost Jesus gave his Spirit to all who have gathered at the cenacle of Zion. Thus they were made the temples of the Holy Spirit and sons of God.
6. Continuation of the Effect of the Salvation
Salvation is the unique possession of Jesus Christ. All of us have share in it only if we are in union with him. In order to have union with him we should have faith in Him which means acceptance of Jesus as our saviour. Sacraments are next element of this union. The baptism which effects the union with Christ who died and rose is the basic sacrament. Now we do not see the miracles which Jesus and his disciples performed in the N.T. period in its literal senses. The place of those miracles is replaced by the sacraments and these sacraments are the miracles of the new era. The Spirit of God works through these sacraments at present in the life and ministry of Church.
Church possesses the truth and the power of Christ. Through it Christ continues to teach, to overcome the Satan and to communicate the life of the spirit. In Church one contacts the saviour and experiences the salvation. While sin drove men away from the paradise or the goodness the life in Christ, the Spirit brought him back to the state of goodness. The process of coming to God which started at the time of Abraham is completed in Christ and it is being continued till the end of the time. The Church is expecting a Parousia when Christ will be all in all. In him man will regain the lost state. The salvation which Christ accomplished is perfect and each man must personalize it subjectively in the Church; sacraments are the means to it.
Work of the Spirit in the church: the Spirit of God in Christ brings us in union with God the father (2Cor 5, 21). We are made the temples of the Holy Spirit (1Cor 6, 19), citizens of heaven (Phil 3, 20), brothers of Christ (Rom 8, 29), children of his father (Eph1, 5-6), co-victors over Satan- we who are united with Christ become the sharers in his victory too, spiritual descendent of Abraham (Gal 3, 26-29) and united to each other in Christ.
The glorified Christ has completed his mission on the day of Pentecost after pouring out the spirit. The Spirit enlightens the Church by making her aware of the treasures of revelation that Christ has deposited in her. Revelation ended with Christ but the Spirit continues to enlighten and interpret the church. Spirit sanctifies the Church and gives her life and makes her the temple (1cor 3, 16). Now the gifts we see in the Church are also because of the work of the spirit. He is active in the church. All the varieties of the gifts are inspired by one and the same Spirit who apportions to each one individually as he wills (1Cor 12, 4.11). Pouring out these gifts the Holy Spirit bears the Church forward to witness to Christ and sustains her in that witness. Today Spirit raises up missionaries and the apostles in the Church and supports the Christians in their witnesses till the second coming of Christ. The Parousia is the completion of the history of salvation. Then, Christ delivers the kingdom to God the father destroying every rule and every authority and every power (1cor 15, 22-24). On that final and the perfect day of consecration of the history “we shall be with the lord” (1Thess 4, 17).
Conclusion
God had demonstrated his supreme power over the world by creating the whole universe and as the culmination of the creation he created the man in his image and likeness. The work of the Spirit of God was well manifested in the universe when he formed the family of Abraham. The work of the Spirit of God was evident in the election of Jacob, his twelve tribes, preservation of their family in Egypt, the election and the call of Moses, the ten plagues, crossing over of the sea of reed, covenant at Mt. Sinai etc. Then God spoke to his people through Law and through prophets. They warned, instructed and foretold the fate of the people and asked them to follow the way of the lord. When the time is fulfilled God sent his only begotten son to the world. It is the progressive entrance of God into the history of man (Jn1, 1-5 .10-14).
In the paradise sin separated man from God and among themselves. Christ’s birth was meant to bring them back to those relationships. The whole story of the salvation is thus the love of God and the work of the spirit, who is trying to bring back the mankind which went away from him by sin. The saving work of the Spirit of God or the work of God which started at the very moment of man’s sin in paradise was continuing through the history, through different stages as we have seen above. It was actualized in Christ objectively but as God respects the human freedom, man has to personalize it individually. Hence there is an already but not yet aspect. The work of the Spirit of God in the salvation history will be over by end of the history only which is the Parousia of the Lord Christ.
Teaching of the Church on Responsible Parenthood and Responsible Procreation
Teaching of the Church on Responsible Parenthood and Responsible Procreation, and the moral difference between Natural Family Planning and Artificial birth control
1. Introduction
2. Responsible Parenthood
3. Responsible Procreation
4. Responsible Parenthood: Teachings of the Church.
4.1 Casti Connubii
4.2 Pius XII
4.3 Vatican II
4.4 Pope John XXIII
4.5 Pope Paul VI
4.6 Humane Vitae
4.7 Letter to the Families
4.8 CCC
4.9 Responsible Parenthood linked to Moral Maturity
5. Natural Family Planning
5.1 Merits of the NFP
5.2 Demerits of NFP
6. Artificial birth control
7. Moral Difference between NFP and Artificial Methods
1. Introduction
The concept of responsible and prudent parenthood is a topic of recent wide discussion. Responsible parenthood is not a euphemism for contraception. Responsible parenthood is not a euphemism for contraception. It only means that the number of children must be determined by intelligent choice on the part of the parents. It concerns the transmission of life of education of children. In fact it implies many things including the duty of right of the couples to plan the size of their family, recognizing their duties that arise from marriage. Such duties are of two types: first of conjugal love; and second of procreation and education of children. For example, physical and psychological health of the wife, age and help of the born children etc may have to regulate the transmission of life. There is a criticism from the scholars that -Church does not consider the modern trend; -Church does not change her position. Before we consider the various aspects of responsible parenthood, we shall review the magisterial approaches towards responsible parenthood.
2. Responsible Parenthood
As an elementary remark is it said that apart from or in addition to procreation the marital act has meaning in itself. Such meanings will surely vary from couples to couples. It is also context specific to a large extent some of the primary meanings of the marital act include an expression of conjugal love, mutual commitment, personal healing and celebration of life. These meanings can be fruitfully and adequately sustained only in the context of marriage. Because in marriage they commit themselves to each other in an everlasting bond. Having said this we have to remark that we can’t under rate procreation as one among many possible meanings. Procreation remains the most direct and principal ends of marriage.
In the contemporary situations couples find it difficult to harmonize the two demands of conjugal love and transmission of life. Conjugal love may sometimes demand control over the transmission of life. Such situations includes (1) medical or physical reasons that would prevent the wife from becoming pregnant anymore. 2) The lack of necessary time between one pregnancy and the next. 3) The demands of upbringing children in view of loving and caring them sufficiently, the couple’s economic situation, social situation, housing and demographic indications. Considering all these elements prudently and generously the couples should select the ideal number of their children. In other words the decision on the transmission of life should be evaluated in terms of proportionate reason due parental considerations of the couples and just and sufficient cause. Having taken their decision, i.e. having controlling for the time being the couples has to revise such decision from time to time. It is an essential element of responsible parenthood. When the situation of children ceases to exist, they have to review their decision.
3. Responsible Procreation
1. The spouses are to be strengthened in their view of the inestimable value and preciousness of human life, and aided so that they may commit themselves to making their own family a sanctuary of life:[28] " quite differently than he is present in all other instances of begetting 'on earth'". (John Paul II, Letter to Families, n. 9)
2. Parents are to consider their mission as an honour and a responsibility, since they become co-operators with the Lord in calling into existence a new human person, made in the image and likeness of God, redeemed and destined, in Christ, to a Life of eternal happiness.(GS.50) "It is precisely in their role as co-workers with God that we see the greatness of couples who are ready 'to co-operate with the love of the Creator and the Saviour, who through them will enlarge and enrich his own family day by day"'. (Evangelism Vitae.43)
3. From this the Christian's joy and esteem for paternity and maternity are derived. This parenthood is called "" in recent documents of the Church, to emphasize the awareness and generosity of the spouses with regard to their mission of transmitting life, which has in itself a value of eternity, and to call attention to their role as educators. Certainly it is a duty of married couples-who, for that matter, should seek appropriate counsel-to deliberate deeply and in a spirit of faith about the size of their family, and to decide the concrete mode of realizing it, with respect for the moral criteria of conjugal life. (GS.50)
4. The Church has always taught the intrinsic evil of contraception, that is, of every marital act intentionally rendered unfruitful. This teaching is to be held as definitive and irreformable. Contraception is gravely opposed to marital chastity, it is contrary to the good of the transmission of life (the procreative aspect of matrimony), and to the reciprocal self- giving of the spouses (the unitive aspect of matrimony); it harms true love and denies the sovereign role of God in the transmission of human life. (Humanae Vitae.14)
5. A specific and more serious moral evil is present in the use of means which have an abortive effect, impeding the implantation of the embryo which has just been fertilized or even causing its expulsion in an early stage of pregnancy. (Evangelium Vitae.13)
6. However, profoundly different from any contraceptive practice is the behaviour of married couples, who, always remaining fundamentally open to the gift of life, live their intimacy only in the unfruitful periods, when they are led to this course by serious motives of responsible parenthood. This is true both from the anthropological and moral points of view, because it is rooted in a different conception of the person and of sexuality. (Humanae Vitae.16)
The witness of couples who for years have lived in harmony with the plan of the Creator, and who, for proportionately serious reasons, licitly use the methods rightly called "natural," confirms that it is possible for spouses to live the demands of chastity and of married life with common accord and full self- giving. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2214&2221ff
4. Responsible Parenthood: Teachings of the Church.
4.1 Casti Connubii: From the time of Pius XI, the Xa had accepted the right of the couples to plan the size of their family. Casti Connubii recognized that every marital act does not necessarily lead to procreation; still such acts also licit. Pius XI was actually reacting to the Lambeth conference of the Anglican Church. That conference also admitted that the couples had the right to restrict the transmission of life. The number identified are (1) complete abstinence from marital life. Even if it is practiced it can reduce the quality of life of the couples. Secondly, unnatural or artificial methods are considered immoral and unchristian (no. 56):
Since, therefore, openly departing from the uninterrupted Christian tradition some recently have judged it possible solemnly to declare another doctrine regarding this question, the Catholic Church, to whom God has entrusted the defence of the integrity and purity of morals, standing erect in the midst of the moral ruin which surrounds her, in order that she may preserve the chastity of the nuptial union from being defiled by this foul stain, raises her voice in token of her divine ambassadorship and through Our mouth proclaims anew: any use whatsoever of matrimony exercised in such a way that the act is deliberately frustrated in its natural power to generate life is an offence against the law of God and of nature, and those who indulge in such are branded with the guilt of a grave sin.
So other methods could be used in the light of Christian principles. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2202-08
4.2 Pius XII while admitting the right of the couples to regulate the size of their family held that in certain cases a pregnancy could be an error or injustice or immorality.
4.3 Vatican II
The council admitted that there can be instances in which the couples are not obliged to harmonize the two ends of marriage namely conjugal love and procreation. For example, psychologically or physically ill wife, then modern expensive life style also may demand controlling the size of the family. In such situations according to GS 51 couples should be led by human Christian responsibility. In planning their family they have to consider first welfare of the couples, secondly welfare of the children, including children to be born.
GS 51: The council realize that married people are often hindered by certain situation in modern life from working out their married love harmoniously and that they can sometimes find themselves in a position where the number of children cannot be increased, at least for the time being: in cases like these it is quite difficult to preserve the practice of faithful love and the complete intimacy of their lives. But where the intimacy of married life is broken, it often happens that faithfulness is imperilled and the good of the children suffers: then the education of the children as well as the courage to accept more children are both endangered.
….the church wishes to emphasize that there can be no conflict between the divine laws governing the transmission of life and the fostering of authentic married love.
……in questions of birth regulation the sons of the Church, faithful to these principles, are forbidden to use methods disapproved of by the teaching authority of the Church in its interpretation of the divine law.
GS no 50 states that whenever Christian spouses in a spirit of sacrifice and trust in divine providence (1cor 7:5) carry out their duties of procreation with generous human and Christian responsibility, they glorify the creator and perfect themselves. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2214-15&2217
4.4 Pope John XXIII
He appointed a six member commission to study about responsible parenthood in 1963. It was called the “pontifical commission on population, Family and birth.” Paul VI in 1966 expanded this commission to 34 members. After a series of studies and deliberations the commission could not reach a unanimous position. In 1966 it produced a divided report as majority and minority. Very briefly the rather progressive majority group recognized other methods than rhythm method for controlling the size of the family. However both the majority and minority report held that responsible parenthood is a fundamental obligation of couples in view of their life situation. The majority report stressed the objective criteria proposed by Vatican II namely “human person has to be viewed in his/her totality integrally and adequately.
4.5 Pope Paul VI
In 1967 the encyclical ‘Poploruem Progressio by Paul VI admitted right of the couples to plan their family considering their obligations towards the children already born and the community in which they live.
No 37 states: It is true that too frequently an accelerated demographic increase adds its own difficulties to the problems of development: the size of the population increases more rapidly than available resources, and things are found to have reached apparently an impasse. From that moment the temptation is great to check the demographic increase by means of radical measures. It is certain that public authorities can intervene, within the limit of their competence, by favoring the availability of appropriate information and by adopting suitable measures, provided that these be in conformity with the moral law and that they respect the rightful freedom of married couples. Where the inalienable right to marriage and procreation is lacking, human dignity has ceased to exist. Finally, it is for the parents to decide, with full knowledge of the matter, on the number of their children, taking into account their responsibilities towards God, themselves, the children they have already brought into the world, and the community to which they belong. In all this they must follow the demands of their own conscience enlightened by God's law authentically interpreted, and sustained by confidence in Him.
4.6 Humane Vitae
HV began analysing the existing socio-economic situation in which there was scarcity of food, job, housing etc. It also recognized that costly education also demands a control on transmission of life and responsible parenthood (HV 2).
Evaluating the social condition in which the couples live, together with prudence and generosity they have to think about the physical, psychological and social development of their family and their children. In the light of this evaluation they have to take right decision about the size of their family. Planning and controlling the size of the family is not something permitted to the couples but demanded from them by the Church. Only those couple who are conscious and generous of their parental vocation as a convent and conjugal love can take responsible decision on their parenthood. In short decisions about responsible parenthood should not be selfish but generous. If selfish, it is immoral. This is very clear form HV no. 10:
Hence conjugal love requires in husband and wife an awareness of their mission of "responsible parenthood," which today is rightly much insisted upon, and which also must be exactly understood. Consequently it is to be considered under different aspects which are legitimate and connect with one another. In relation to the biological processes, responsible parenthood means the knowledge and respect of their functions; human intellect discovers in the power of giving life biological laws which are part of the human person [9]. In relation to the tendencies of instinct and passion, responsible parenthood means that necessary dominion which reason and will must exercise over them. In relation to physical, economic, psychological and social conditions, responsible parenthood is exercised; either by the deliberate and generous decision to raise a numerous family, or by the decision, made for grave motives and with due respects for the moral law, to avoid for the time being, or even for an indeterminate period, a new birth.
Responsible parenthood also and above all implies a more profound relationship to the objective moral order established by God, of which a right conscience is the faithful interpreter. The responsible exercise of parenthood implies, therefore, that husband and wife recognize fully their own duties towards God, towards themselves, towards the family and towards society, in a correct hierarchy of values.
In the task of transmitting life, therefore, they are not free to proceed completely at will, as if they could determine in a wholly autonomous way the honest path to follow; but they must conform their activity to the creative intention of God, expressed in the very nature of marriage and of its acts, and manifested by the constant teaching of the Church. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2220&2225
4.7 Letter to the Families
No. 12 presents that sincere self-denial of the spouses is the total self-giving of the marriage. Spouses should be responsible for their fatherhood and motherhood -spouses should take the responsibility of the new life. Mutual self-giving is important -the aim of the total offering of the spouse is a combination of love and procreation. It should be integrated together. Birth control is good for the society, the nation, family, but it should be based on the moral law.
4.8 CCC: Marriage is ordered to parenthood as its crowing glory (1652)
4.9 Responsible Parenthood linked to Moral Maturity
1. Morally correct regulation of fertility (HV 16 natural rhythms)
Biological rhythm which belongs to the natural order
Responsible parenthood, which, according to the Creator’s design, is inscribed in the natural order of human fecundity
The concept of a morally correct regulation of fertility is nothing other than the rereading of the language of the body in truth.
2. Self-denial
Spouses who follow natural rhythms, expresses themselves in a mature way before the demands of responsible parenthood. For instance HV no 21 says that “responsible parenthood is connected with a continual effort and commitment, and that it is put into effect at the cost of a precise self-denial.”
3. Right conscious is the true interpreter
lowering the number of births in their family must be established by taking into account not only the good of one’s own family, even the state of health and the means of the couple themselves, but also the good of the society to which they belong, of the church, and even of the whole of mankind.
Responsible parenthood as an expression of a high ethical value. It is not limiting the children; it means the willingness to accept the larger family
-Responsible parenthood implies a deeper relationship with the objective moral order instituted by God - the order of which a right conscience is the true interpreter (HV 10)
4 Moral Maturity
-the truth of responsible parenthood and its implementation is linked with the moral maturity of the person
One can see the ethical problem here. By separating the natural method from the ethical dimension, one no longer sees the difference between it and the other methods (artificial means) and one comes to the point of speaking of it as if it were one a different for of contraception. They are two methods
5. Lawful regulation
-natural regulation of fertility that is lawful and morally right HV no 21: this self-discipline brings to family life abundant fruits of tranquillity and peace...it fosters loving considerations for each other.
Summary: Catholic health care recognizes that couples should use their procreative capacity responsibly - couples should reasonably decide to avoid pregnancy. They should be provided with appropriate knowledge and skills to enable them to determine times of fertility and infertility so that they themselves can decide when to engage in sexual intercourse.
-an understanding of modern methods of natural family planning increases a couple’s knowledge of the reproductive cycle and thus enables them more easily to take responsibility for their marital life.
5. Natural Family Planning
Natural Family Planning is based upon the biological fact that women are most time infertile. In every menstrual cycle, even when allowance is made for the survival of spermatozoa, during the days of infertility an act of sexual intercourse cannot cause conception.
There are three main natural methods. 1) The Rhythm methods discovered by doctors Orgino and Knaus, in 1924. It is known as rhythm because of the physical rhythm or pattern of the female cycle ovulation. The method is based on the calculation of the expected date of ovulation according to the calendar. 2) Later came the Temperature or Sympto-Thermic Method, which consists in the taking of the body temperature every morning and recording it on a graph: a deviation of half-a –degree indicates the approach of ovulation. These two methods were not taught with sufficient accuracy, so that the smallest error in calculation resulted in a pregnancy. 3) The Ovulation method, first propounded in 1949 by an Australian couple, Dr. John and Dr. Evelyn Billings, and continually developed by them during the last decades of the century, from the insights and experience gained by them in their marriage guidance and counselling. This method relies on the identification by a woman of a symptom which predicts ovulation, namely, the secretion of a particular type of mucus from the glands of the cervix (neck) of the uterus.
There are more than 25 methods to understand the ovulation. (Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam p. 33-37
5.1 Merits of the NFP Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam pp. 38-45; Felix M. Podimattam, Responsible Parenthood p. 38-39
1. NFP places responsibility on both partners
2. Those who use NFP have reported an enhanced sense of personal dignity resulting from awareness of their own body and its rhythms.
3. That abstinence from intercourse can help a couple learn to have confidence in the strength of their love for each other and to express it in a variety of ways, without that preoccupation with total orgasm which is proving to be a source of tension for many men and women today.
4. That periodic abstinence removes something of the sexual routine expect sterilizing and it does not have the obvious disadvantage of a sterilizing operation.
5. That when properly practiced, it can be as effective as any method expect sterilization.
6. It has no medical risks unlike other methods namely, pills and IUD
7. It does not require regular medical checkups in order to avoid side effects.
8. In this method there is no irreversible and drastic change in the body, no chemically induced hormonal change.
9. No special barrier to male penetration, no interruption of intercourse.
10. Aesthetically and medically, NFP far surpasses other methods of fertility control.
11. Psychologically the couples are satisfied.
5.2 Demerits of NFP : Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam, p. 46-51; Felix M. Podimattam, Responsible Parenthood, p. 39-63.
1. In terms of a presumptive standard 28-days menstrual cycle NFP means no sexual relations about 10 days.
Incidently, illness, pregnancy, work, fatigue, and consideration for one’s own mate impose much necessary abstinence. This discipline is inherent, necessary, and appropriate to the couple’s life together. However, when even more abstinence becomes the only means to avoid pregnancy, then abstinence can endanger the couple’s unity.
2. NFP methods force a constant calculation and worry which is psychologically debilitating and tends to undermine the couple’s stability and introduces fear and conflict in their relationship.
3. Since the population is high, the present teaching regarding NFP is irrelevant in practice. There are no enough trained instructors.
4. NFP is highly effective under ideal conditions, it is hardly so in ordinary conditions. Many couples claim to have tried it without real success, and NFP pregnancies do occur.
Recent studies have shown that 48 hours is only the average life span of the sperm, some sperm can still be viable in the mucus of the cervix after the intercourse as long as 7 or s days. Ovum can live for 1 day.
The ovarian cycle of the woman is equally unpredictable.
5. NFP does not promote the ascetic discipline which the clerical moralists believe it will. Abstinence can be enforced by NFP just as it can be enforced by absence or imprisonment.
6. The naturalness of NFP is questionable. Some of the scholars argued that NFP appears to be as artificial as any other contraceptive. The intention is cold –blooded exclusion of children.
7. NFP is based on false biology. It is very strange that procreativeness should be defined only in terms of the operation of the sperm as it travels into the uterus, but the presence or absence of the ovum is deemed irrelevant to the definition of procreativeness.
8. In designating NFP as natural two different things are confused: the woman’s ovular cycle, which is indeed natural in the sense of being a biological phenomenon, and the infertile period method which has been invented by human intelligence and is therefore artificial or manmade.
9. To many married people, there is a betrayal of their dedication precisely in the indiscriminate childbearing on the one hand or the alternative of calendar spaced love-making or total abstinence, on the other.
10. The obligation to limit the size of the family is an ordinary obligation imposed on all married couples by the more basic end of marriage which demands that children be brought up in a human way relative to the social conditions of times.
11. Its openness to procreation is not openness to safe and healthy human life. It causes a disproportionate waste of zygotes and even a disproportionate frequency of spontaneous abortions.
To sum up, NFP is a solution in the case of some couples, but it cannot be accepted as a general solution to the problem of birth regulation.
6. Artificial birth control
Unlike the NFP the couples use artificial methods to regulate procreation. They knowingly control the natural functioning of the sexual organs for not to be fully functioned as resulting in procreation. These methods are against the nature. There are a lot of artificial means such as: Interrupted Intercourse, Condoms, Loupe, Diaphram, Spermicides, Pills, and Sterilization etc.
7. Moral Difference between NFP and Artificial Methods
Even if both the methods are aiming the same effect as to control the procreation there is big difference of morality between them. In NFP we follow the natural order of sexuality. Because the human sexuality it self provide a period of time when pregnancy could not happen. And these ‘dry’ days are not regulated by human, so having intercourse in that time is open to procreation but nature prevents. Thereby persons do not hold the responsibility. But in the use of Artificial methods persons act against the natural order and there by not open to the ends of marriage; procreation. That is why the Church has on many occasions stated the artificial means as immoral. The Church always affirms that every conjugal act must remain open to the transmission of life and that any action which in its anticipation, realisation, or in the consequences of the conjugal act proposes an end or as a means to render procreation impossible, such an action is intrinsically evil. (Humane Vitae 11 & 14) As for artificial means of limiting the family, the popes have on many occasions them as immoral. (Casti connubii no, 56; Humane Vitae14; Veritatis Splendor 80 ) [Further addition can be done after reading class note on Marriage chapter 4 topics no. 4&5]. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2236 page918
CHRISTIAN FAITH page no.898 there is a topic at the bottom as RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD is very useful for us in answering this question. Especially the first five sub topics numbered;
1- 2214, 2220
2- 2214, 2219
3- 1841, 2215, 2247
4- 2220,2236,.2244
5- 2217
6- 2204, 2225, 2236
7- 2202,2209, 2222, 2223, 2236
1. Introduction
2. Responsible Parenthood
3. Responsible Procreation
4. Responsible Parenthood: Teachings of the Church.
4.1 Casti Connubii
4.2 Pius XII
4.3 Vatican II
4.4 Pope John XXIII
4.5 Pope Paul VI
4.6 Humane Vitae
4.7 Letter to the Families
4.8 CCC
4.9 Responsible Parenthood linked to Moral Maturity
5. Natural Family Planning
5.1 Merits of the NFP
5.2 Demerits of NFP
6. Artificial birth control
7. Moral Difference between NFP and Artificial Methods
1. Introduction
The concept of responsible and prudent parenthood is a topic of recent wide discussion. Responsible parenthood is not a euphemism for contraception. Responsible parenthood is not a euphemism for contraception. It only means that the number of children must be determined by intelligent choice on the part of the parents. It concerns the transmission of life of education of children. In fact it implies many things including the duty of right of the couples to plan the size of their family, recognizing their duties that arise from marriage. Such duties are of two types: first of conjugal love; and second of procreation and education of children. For example, physical and psychological health of the wife, age and help of the born children etc may have to regulate the transmission of life. There is a criticism from the scholars that -Church does not consider the modern trend; -Church does not change her position. Before we consider the various aspects of responsible parenthood, we shall review the magisterial approaches towards responsible parenthood.
2. Responsible Parenthood
As an elementary remark is it said that apart from or in addition to procreation the marital act has meaning in itself. Such meanings will surely vary from couples to couples. It is also context specific to a large extent some of the primary meanings of the marital act include an expression of conjugal love, mutual commitment, personal healing and celebration of life. These meanings can be fruitfully and adequately sustained only in the context of marriage. Because in marriage they commit themselves to each other in an everlasting bond. Having said this we have to remark that we can’t under rate procreation as one among many possible meanings. Procreation remains the most direct and principal ends of marriage.
In the contemporary situations couples find it difficult to harmonize the two demands of conjugal love and transmission of life. Conjugal love may sometimes demand control over the transmission of life. Such situations includes (1) medical or physical reasons that would prevent the wife from becoming pregnant anymore. 2) The lack of necessary time between one pregnancy and the next. 3) The demands of upbringing children in view of loving and caring them sufficiently, the couple’s economic situation, social situation, housing and demographic indications. Considering all these elements prudently and generously the couples should select the ideal number of their children. In other words the decision on the transmission of life should be evaluated in terms of proportionate reason due parental considerations of the couples and just and sufficient cause. Having taken their decision, i.e. having controlling for the time being the couples has to revise such decision from time to time. It is an essential element of responsible parenthood. When the situation of children ceases to exist, they have to review their decision.
3. Responsible Procreation
1. The spouses are to be strengthened in their view of the inestimable value and preciousness of human life, and aided so that they may commit themselves to making their own family a sanctuary of life:[28] "
2. Parents are to consider their mission as an honour and a responsibility, since they become co-operators with the Lord in calling into existence a new human person, made in the image and likeness of God, redeemed and destined, in Christ, to a Life of eternal happiness.(GS.50) "It is precisely in their role as co-workers with God
3. From this the Christian's joy and esteem for paternity and maternity are derived. This parenthood is called "
4. The Church has always taught the intrinsic evil of contraception, that is, of every marital act intentionally rendered unfruitful. This teaching is to be held as definitive and irreformable. Contraception is gravely opposed to marital chastity, it is contrary to the good of the transmission of life (the procreative aspect of matrimony), and to the reciprocal self- giving of the spouses (the unitive aspect of matrimony); it harms true love and denies the sovereign role of God in the transmission of human life. (Humanae Vitae.14)
5. A specific and more serious moral evil is present in the use of means which have an abortive effect, impeding the implantation of the embryo which has just been fertilized or even causing its expulsion in an early stage of pregnancy. (Evangelium Vitae.13)
6. However, profoundly different from any contraceptive practice is the behaviour of married couples, who, always remaining fundamentally open to the gift of life, live their intimacy only in the unfruitful periods, when they are led to this course by serious motives of responsible parenthood. This is true both from the anthropological and moral points of view, because it is rooted in a different conception of the person and of sexuality. (Humanae Vitae.16)
The witness of couples who for years have lived in harmony with the plan of the Creator, and who, for proportionately serious reasons, licitly use the methods rightly called "natural," confirms that it is possible for spouses to live the demands of chastity and of married life with common accord and full self- giving. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2214&2221ff
4. Responsible Parenthood: Teachings of the Church.
4.1 Casti Connubii: From the time of Pius XI, the Xa had accepted the right of the couples to plan the size of their family. Casti Connubii recognized that every marital act does not necessarily lead to procreation; still such acts also licit. Pius XI was actually reacting to the Lambeth conference of the Anglican Church. That conference also admitted that the couples had the right to restrict the transmission of life. The number identified are (1) complete abstinence from marital life. Even if it is practiced it can reduce the quality of life of the couples. Secondly, unnatural or artificial methods are considered immoral and unchristian (no. 56):
Since, therefore, openly departing from the uninterrupted Christian tradition some recently have judged it possible solemnly to declare another doctrine regarding this question, the Catholic Church, to whom God has entrusted the defence of the integrity and purity of morals, standing erect in the midst of the moral ruin which surrounds her, in order that she may preserve the chastity of the nuptial union from being defiled by this foul stain, raises her voice in token of her divine ambassadorship and through Our mouth proclaims anew: any use whatsoever of matrimony exercised in such a way that the act is deliberately frustrated in its natural power to generate life is an offence against the law of God and of nature, and those who indulge in such are branded with the guilt of a grave sin.
So other methods could be used in the light of Christian principles. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2202-08
4.2 Pius XII while admitting the right of the couples to regulate the size of their family held that in certain cases a pregnancy could be an error or injustice or immorality.
4.3 Vatican II
The council admitted that there can be instances in which the couples are not obliged to harmonize the two ends of marriage namely conjugal love and procreation. For example, psychologically or physically ill wife, then modern expensive life style also may demand controlling the size of the family. In such situations according to GS 51 couples should be led by human Christian responsibility. In planning their family they have to consider first welfare of the couples, secondly welfare of the children, including children to be born.
GS 51: The council realize that married people are often hindered by certain situation in modern life from working out their married love harmoniously and that they can sometimes find themselves in a position where the number of children cannot be increased, at least for the time being: in cases like these it is quite difficult to preserve the practice of faithful love and the complete intimacy of their lives. But where the intimacy of married life is broken, it often happens that faithfulness is imperilled and the good of the children suffers: then the education of the children as well as the courage to accept more children are both endangered.
….the church wishes to emphasize that there can be no conflict between the divine laws governing the transmission of life and the fostering of authentic married love.
……in questions of birth regulation the sons of the Church, faithful to these principles, are forbidden to use methods disapproved of by the teaching authority of the Church in its interpretation of the divine law.
GS no 50 states that whenever Christian spouses in a spirit of sacrifice and trust in divine providence (1cor 7:5) carry out their duties of procreation with generous human and Christian responsibility, they glorify the creator and perfect themselves. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2214-15&2217
4.4 Pope John XXIII
He appointed a six member commission to study about responsible parenthood in 1963. It was called the “pontifical commission on population, Family and birth.” Paul VI in 1966 expanded this commission to 34 members. After a series of studies and deliberations the commission could not reach a unanimous position. In 1966 it produced a divided report as majority and minority. Very briefly the rather progressive majority group recognized other methods than rhythm method for controlling the size of the family. However both the majority and minority report held that responsible parenthood is a fundamental obligation of couples in view of their life situation. The majority report stressed the objective criteria proposed by Vatican II namely “human person has to be viewed in his/her totality integrally and adequately.
4.5 Pope Paul VI
In 1967 the encyclical ‘Poploruem Progressio by Paul VI admitted right of the couples to plan their family considering their obligations towards the children already born and the community in which they live.
No 37 states: It is true that too frequently an accelerated demographic increase adds its own difficulties to the problems of development: the size of the population increases more rapidly than available resources, and things are found to have reached apparently an impasse. From that moment the temptation is great to check the demographic increase by means of radical measures. It is certain that public authorities can intervene, within the limit of their competence, by favoring the availability of appropriate information and by adopting suitable measures, provided that these be in conformity with the moral law and that they respect the rightful freedom of married couples. Where the inalienable right to marriage and procreation is lacking, human dignity has ceased to exist. Finally, it is for the parents to decide, with full knowledge of the matter, on the number of their children, taking into account their responsibilities towards God, themselves, the children they have already brought into the world, and the community to which they belong. In all this they must follow the demands of their own conscience enlightened by God's law authentically interpreted, and sustained by confidence in Him.
4.6 Humane Vitae
HV began analysing the existing socio-economic situation in which there was scarcity of food, job, housing etc. It also recognized that costly education also demands a control on transmission of life and responsible parenthood (HV 2).
Evaluating the social condition in which the couples live, together with prudence and generosity they have to think about the physical, psychological and social development of their family and their children. In the light of this evaluation they have to take right decision about the size of their family. Planning and controlling the size of the family is not something permitted to the couples but demanded from them by the Church. Only those couple who are conscious and generous of their parental vocation as a convent and conjugal love can take responsible decision on their parenthood. In short decisions about responsible parenthood should not be selfish but generous. If selfish, it is immoral. This is very clear form HV no. 10:
Hence conjugal love requires in husband and wife an awareness of their mission of "responsible parenthood," which today is rightly much insisted upon, and which also must be exactly understood. Consequently it is to be considered under different aspects which are legitimate and connect with one another. In relation to the biological processes, responsible parenthood means the knowledge and respect of their functions; human intellect discovers in the power of giving life biological laws which are part of the human person [9]. In relation to the tendencies of instinct and passion, responsible parenthood means that necessary dominion which reason and will must exercise over them. In relation to physical, economic, psychological and social conditions, responsible parenthood is exercised; either by the deliberate and generous decision to raise a numerous family, or by the decision, made for grave motives and with due respects for the moral law, to avoid for the time being, or even for an indeterminate period, a new birth.
Responsible parenthood also and above all implies a more profound relationship to the objective moral order established by God, of which a right conscience is the faithful interpreter. The responsible exercise of parenthood implies, therefore, that husband and wife recognize fully their own duties towards God, towards themselves, towards the family and towards society, in a correct hierarchy of values.
In the task of transmitting life, therefore, they are not free to proceed completely at will, as if they could determine in a wholly autonomous way the honest path to follow; but they must conform their activity to the creative intention of God, expressed in the very nature of marriage and of its acts, and manifested by the constant teaching of the Church. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2220&2225
4.7 Letter to the Families
No. 12 presents that sincere self-denial of the spouses is the total self-giving of the marriage. Spouses should be responsible for their fatherhood and motherhood -spouses should take the responsibility of the new life. Mutual self-giving is important -the aim of the total offering of the spouse is a combination of love and procreation. It should be integrated together. Birth control is good for the society, the nation, family, but it should be based on the moral law.
4.8 CCC: Marriage is ordered to parenthood as its crowing glory (1652)
4.9 Responsible Parenthood linked to Moral Maturity
1. Morally correct regulation of fertility (HV 16 natural rhythms)
Biological rhythm which belongs to the natural order
Responsible parenthood, which, according to the Creator’s design, is inscribed in the natural order of human fecundity
The concept of a morally correct regulation of fertility is nothing other than the rereading of the language of the body in truth.
2. Self-denial
Spouses who follow natural rhythms, expresses themselves in a mature way before the demands of responsible parenthood. For instance HV no 21 says that “responsible parenthood is connected with a continual effort and commitment, and that it is put into effect at the cost of a precise self-denial.”
3. Right conscious is the true interpreter
lowering the number of births in their family must be established by taking into account not only the good of one’s own family, even the state of health and the means of the couple themselves, but also the good of the society to which they belong, of the church, and even of the whole of mankind.
Responsible parenthood as an expression of a high ethical value. It is not limiting the children; it means the willingness to accept the larger family
-Responsible parenthood implies a deeper relationship with the objective moral order instituted by God - the order of which a right conscience is the true interpreter (HV 10)
4 Moral Maturity
-the truth of responsible parenthood and its implementation is linked with the moral maturity of the person
One can see the ethical problem here. By separating the natural method from the ethical dimension, one no longer sees the difference between it and the other methods (artificial means) and one comes to the point of speaking of it as if it were one a different for of contraception. They are two methods
5. Lawful regulation
-natural regulation of fertility that is lawful and morally right HV no 21: this self-discipline brings to family life abundant fruits of tranquillity and peace...it fosters loving considerations for each other.
Summary: Catholic health care recognizes that couples should use their procreative capacity responsibly - couples should reasonably decide to avoid pregnancy. They should be provided with appropriate knowledge and skills to enable them to determine times of fertility and infertility so that they themselves can decide when to engage in sexual intercourse.
-an understanding of modern methods of natural family planning increases a couple’s knowledge of the reproductive cycle and thus enables them more easily to take responsibility for their marital life.
5. Natural Family Planning
Natural Family Planning is based upon the biological fact that women are most time infertile. In every menstrual cycle, even when allowance is made for the survival of spermatozoa, during the days of infertility an act of sexual intercourse cannot cause conception.
There are three main natural methods. 1) The Rhythm methods discovered by doctors Orgino and Knaus, in 1924. It is known as rhythm because of the physical rhythm or pattern of the female cycle ovulation. The method is based on the calculation of the expected date of ovulation according to the calendar. 2) Later came the Temperature or Sympto-Thermic Method, which consists in the taking of the body temperature every morning and recording it on a graph: a deviation of half-a –degree indicates the approach of ovulation. These two methods were not taught with sufficient accuracy, so that the smallest error in calculation resulted in a pregnancy. 3) The Ovulation method, first propounded in 1949 by an Australian couple, Dr. John and Dr. Evelyn Billings, and continually developed by them during the last decades of the century, from the insights and experience gained by them in their marriage guidance and counselling. This method relies on the identification by a woman of a symptom which predicts ovulation, namely, the secretion of a particular type of mucus from the glands of the cervix (neck) of the uterus.
There are more than 25 methods to understand the ovulation. (Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam p. 33-37
5.1 Merits of the NFP Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam pp. 38-45; Felix M. Podimattam, Responsible Parenthood p. 38-39
1. NFP places responsibility on both partners
2. Those who use NFP have reported an enhanced sense of personal dignity resulting from awareness of their own body and its rhythms.
3. That abstinence from intercourse can help a couple learn to have confidence in the strength of their love for each other and to express it in a variety of ways, without that preoccupation with total orgasm which is proving to be a source of tension for many men and women today.
4. That periodic abstinence removes something of the sexual routine expect sterilizing and it does not have the obvious disadvantage of a sterilizing operation.
5. That when properly practiced, it can be as effective as any method expect sterilization.
6. It has no medical risks unlike other methods namely, pills and IUD
7. It does not require regular medical checkups in order to avoid side effects.
8. In this method there is no irreversible and drastic change in the body, no chemically induced hormonal change.
9. No special barrier to male penetration, no interruption of intercourse.
10. Aesthetically and medically, NFP far surpasses other methods of fertility control.
11. Psychologically the couples are satisfied.
5.2 Demerits of NFP : Cf. John Iype, Ningal Ashikkunna Kuttikal, Malayalam, p. 46-51; Felix M. Podimattam, Responsible Parenthood, p. 39-63.
1. In terms of a presumptive standard 28-days menstrual cycle NFP means no sexual relations about 10 days.
Incidently, illness, pregnancy, work, fatigue, and consideration for one’s own mate impose much necessary abstinence. This discipline is inherent, necessary, and appropriate to the couple’s life together. However, when even more abstinence becomes the only means to avoid pregnancy, then abstinence can endanger the couple’s unity.
2. NFP methods force a constant calculation and worry which is psychologically debilitating and tends to undermine the couple’s stability and introduces fear and conflict in their relationship.
3. Since the population is high, the present teaching regarding NFP is irrelevant in practice. There are no enough trained instructors.
4. NFP is highly effective under ideal conditions, it is hardly so in ordinary conditions. Many couples claim to have tried it without real success, and NFP pregnancies do occur.
Recent studies have shown that 48 hours is only the average life span of the sperm, some sperm can still be viable in the mucus of the cervix after the intercourse as long as 7 or s days. Ovum can live for 1 day.
The ovarian cycle of the woman is equally unpredictable.
5. NFP does not promote the ascetic discipline which the clerical moralists believe it will. Abstinence can be enforced by NFP just as it can be enforced by absence or imprisonment.
6. The naturalness of NFP is questionable. Some of the scholars argued that NFP appears to be as artificial as any other contraceptive. The intention is cold –blooded exclusion of children.
7. NFP is based on false biology. It is very strange that procreativeness should be defined only in terms of the operation of the sperm as it travels into the uterus, but the presence or absence of the ovum is deemed irrelevant to the definition of procreativeness.
8. In designating NFP as natural two different things are confused: the woman’s ovular cycle, which is indeed natural in the sense of being a biological phenomenon, and the infertile period method which has been invented by human intelligence and is therefore artificial or manmade.
9. To many married people, there is a betrayal of their dedication precisely in the indiscriminate childbearing on the one hand or the alternative of calendar spaced love-making or total abstinence, on the other.
10. The obligation to limit the size of the family is an ordinary obligation imposed on all married couples by the more basic end of marriage which demands that children be brought up in a human way relative to the social conditions of times.
11. Its openness to procreation is not openness to safe and healthy human life. It causes a disproportionate waste of zygotes and even a disproportionate frequency of spontaneous abortions.
To sum up, NFP is a solution in the case of some couples, but it cannot be accepted as a general solution to the problem of birth regulation.
6. Artificial birth control
Unlike the NFP the couples use artificial methods to regulate procreation. They knowingly control the natural functioning of the sexual organs for not to be fully functioned as resulting in procreation. These methods are against the nature. There are a lot of artificial means such as: Interrupted Intercourse, Condoms, Loupe, Diaphram, Spermicides, Pills, and Sterilization etc.
7. Moral Difference between NFP and Artificial Methods
Even if both the methods are aiming the same effect as to control the procreation there is big difference of morality between them. In NFP we follow the natural order of sexuality. Because the human sexuality it self provide a period of time when pregnancy could not happen. And these ‘dry’ days are not regulated by human, so having intercourse in that time is open to procreation but nature prevents. Thereby persons do not hold the responsibility. But in the use of Artificial methods persons act against the natural order and there by not open to the ends of marriage; procreation. That is why the Church has on many occasions stated the artificial means as immoral. The Church always affirms that every conjugal act must remain open to the transmission of life and that any action which in its anticipation, realisation, or in the consequences of the conjugal act proposes an end or as a means to render procreation impossible, such an action is intrinsically evil. (Humane Vitae 11 & 14) As for artificial means of limiting the family, the popes have on many occasions them as immoral. (Casti connubii no, 56; Humane Vitae14; Veritatis Splendor 80 ) [Further addition can be done after reading class note on Marriage chapter 4 topics no. 4&5]. CHRISTIAN FAITH no.2236 page918
CHRISTIAN FAITH page no.898 there is a topic at the bottom as RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD is very useful for us in answering this question. Especially the first five sub topics numbered;
1- 2214, 2220
2- 2214, 2219
3- 1841, 2215, 2247
4- 2220,2236,.2244
5- 2217
6- 2204, 2225, 2236
7- 2202,2209, 2222, 2223, 2236
How is Christ the eschatological reveler?
Introduction
What is the uniqueness of Christian experience of God or what make the Christian different from the other religions? The answer is that the Christian experience is based on the supernatural revelation, while the others are based on natural revelation.
According to Paul Tillich, Theology of revelation is a systematic reflection of Church’s experience and understanding of God who reveled Himself in Jesus Christ. Therefor revelation is Christocentric. Revelation is a personal self disclosure of God in his Word (Heb 1, 1-2). There is a personal character of God’s revelation. In revelation, God is not an ‘it’ but an ‘I’ and a ‘Thou’.
Revelation is the object and content of Theology. According to K. Rahner, “Theology is the conscious and methodical explanation and explication of the divine revelation received and grasped in faith in Christ. Theology deals with revealing God and believing man. Faith and revelation go together i.e., faith is the response to divine revelation.
The divine plan of revelation involves a specific divine pedagogy. God communicated himself to man gradually. He prepares man to welcome the perfect manifestation in the person and mission of the Incarnate Word, Jesus Christ. Revelation is teleologically oriented towards Christ, the omega point.
1 Basic Notions Regarding Revelation
1.1 Etymological Meaning of Revelation
Velum means Veil or Curtain. Velare means to cover up. Revelare means to remove the curtain. Revelation means removing the veil or curtain. God comes freely out of his hiddenness. Revelation is the supernatural manifestation by God of Himself and the divine plan of salvation. In Greek it is apokalypsis and in Latin revelatio.
1.2 Other expressions of Revelation
1, logos – word of God
2, epiphaneia – appearances
3, gnosis – knowledge
4, phanerosis – manifestation
5, aletheia – truth
1.3 Relation between revelation and faith
St. Anselm defines theology as faith seeking understanding. Faith and revelation go together i.e., faith is the response to divine revelation. Revelation is the content of faith. Revelation is a must for faith. Revelation is disclosure of something hidden.
1.4 Revelation as Self Communion of God
There are two approaches to revelation. They are propositional approach and personalistic approach.
1.4.1 Propositional approach
Here revelation is more understood as proposition, statements of truth, creeds, doctrines or dogmas. It is more intellectual. Revelation is understood here as the answers given to intellectual questions. In propositional approach, revelation is more connected with believing. Revelation is a dogma to be believed.
1.4.2 Personalistic approach
Today revelation is seen by a more personalistic (subjectivistic) approach based on experience. Man is not satisfied by knowing something. For the people who knew the death of Jesus, it is like the death of Socrates. But to see Jesus’ death as sacrifice, it must be interpreted in relation to my life. So factual statements must become value statements. It happens only when ‘I’ enter into ‘it’.
Modern theology calls revelation as self communion of God. It is based on the personalistic approach. Here we cannot ask the question what is revealed, but who is revealed. In this personalistic approach, we cannot understand revelation by intellect alone. No one can speak about God, except God himself.
Interpersonal relation in DV is depicted in the term ‘dialogue’. What God communicates in dialogue is not knowledge or doctrine, but his life. It is a call to be in communion with God and to share in divine life. Revelation is God’s self gift. Revelation is personal as I – Thou relationship. This self communication is out of God’s love for man and it shows his concern for revelation.
1.5 Progressive nature of revelation
The progressive nature of revelation is evident from the Bible itself. NT is the continuation of OT. NT is the fulfillment of the OT prophesies. This progressive nature is through history of salvation.
1.6 Revelation and Tradition
Revelation is the supernatural manifestation by God Himself and the decrees of His will. This manifestation is contained in tradition that comes from Christ through the Apostles and in scriptures inspired by the Holy Spirit. Apostles testified that revelation has reached its climax in Jesus Christ. It does not mean that revelation is not further clarified. Here our understanding of the divine revelation is increased. It is the right meaning of tradition.
1.7 Revelation and Theology
Theology is the study and interpretation of revelation. There are so many mediators or media for divine revelations. Mediators can be any natural object or natural events. Historical events become events of revelation or salvation through interpretation. In OT prophets interpreted the historical events and in NT, the Apostles. Revelation becomes through interpretation. Theology can never go beyond authentic revelation.
1.8 Different types of Revelation
1.8.1 Active and Objective Revelation
Active revelation is a process of God’s self revelation extending over a long period in history.
Objective revelation is the content or deposit of knowledge or wisdom etc which is the result of God’s manifestation.
1.8.2 Immediate and Mediate Revelation
Immediate revelation is the revelation received by men directly from God. Christ is the only direct mediator.
Mediate revelation mans revelation handed down by the first recipients to latter generations i.e. handed down through generations.
1.8.3 Natural and Supernatural Revelation
Natural revelation can be understood as the manifestation of God through the regular order of nature i.e. through the modes of nature.
Supernatural revelation – Natural revelation is not sufficient, a confirmation of it is needed. Supernatural revelation confirms natural revelation. Divine realities can be more clearly understood by the light of faith than by the light of reason.
1.8.4 General and Special revelation
General revelation is through reason. Special revelation is through faith. Special revelation is an affirmation and negation of general revelation.
1.8.5 Public and Private Revelation
Public revelation means official. This revelation is for all human beings. Every person is bound with public revelation in Christ
Private revelation is for an individual or group to make relevant the significance of Christ event. The aim of private revelation is to clarify the purpose of public revelation or Christ event in a particular period. Public revelation is meant for all believers of a community whereas private revelation is given to a person or community. Public revelation takes its origin and is concerned with the person of Jesus Christ as God’s definitive revelation to mankind.
2 Biblical basis of Revelation
There is a progressive growth in the biblical basis of revelation. Bible gives us a progressive growth of revelation of salvation history.
Supernatural revelation takes place in history. It is through the ‘Word’, God spoke in history. The word announces divine plan of salvation and demands a response from our part. Israel was the spokesmen to his revelation. OT history of revelation begins with the word of creation and ends with the word made flesh.
2.1 Old Testament Revelation
It was not easy even for Israel to understand certain historical events as salvific. The key to understand historical event as part of revelation is the word of God which is interpreted on behalf of God by the prophets and law. Law and prophets ate the two important forms of historical revelation in OT. God reveals himself through His mediator – Prophet. The history of Israel is constituted by a series of divine interventions. So history of Israel is salvation history.
2.1.1 Different sages of OT revelation
These stages are studied basing on thematically or according to different books. They are,
2.1.1.1 Creation
The OT begins with the account of creation (Gen 1&2). This can be considered as the beginning of history. Creation is taken place through word that God uttered: let there be. Creation took place by the word of the Lord. (Wis 9, 1 ff)
What does the term Word mean?
Word is the medium to communicate. It contains and expresses and idea. Word is the within of things. Word also reflects the personality of reality to a person who utters the word. Dabar has two meanings – 1, idea & 2, breath (ruah). When a person utters a word, it not only expresses an idea but a power comes out also. So when God spoke, His power was expressed in creation. Divine word never returns without effect. The whole creation is the concrete self-communication of God. Among creation we see a special creation i.e. man (in His own image and likeness). Man is made the Lord of universe to take care, exercise power over universe because man participates in the very being of God. Man is created not merely by the word but God acted out the word, breathing the life into man. Man is given a very special share of God’s power.
2.1.1.2 Call of Abraham
Historical level begins with Abraham and Moses. The promise is given in chapter12 and making of covenant in chapter 15. The events between creation and call of Abraham are only preparation for the call. The call of Abraham was to constitute a people. So the OT is the history of people of the Israel constituted by means of Abraham.
2.1.1.3 Election
Election is making a people, that is done through covenant. The covenant is the center of all things Yahweh made with Israel. The covenant people accept Yahweh as their God. They became God’s people. Covenant has obligations. It demands certain things. God will always fulfill his promise; people have to fulfill their parts.
2.1.1.4 Judgment of people
Judgment is made not by Yahweh but people brought it as themselves because they were not faithful to covenant. They suffered many calamities both natural and spiritual. The non obedience to covenant is relay the judgment. The Assyrian exile and Babylonian exile are the consequences of their disobedience. Prophets warned people and interpreted these calamities as punishment of Yahweh for their disobedience.
2.1.1.5 Promise of Restoration
Promise is the new and definitive intervention of Yahweh to people. Post exilic prophets spoke about restoration of Yahweh – people relation. Eg. Jer 31, 31-32: a new covenant which is superior to old one. The history of Israel is the reflection of word of God and the revelation of God is always continuing – on going process.
These stages are also called:
1. Patriarchal revelation - Manifestation of theophanies. God’s own personal manifestation to fathers.
2. Sinaic covenant - Content is the lordship of Yahweh. Purpose of this covenant is salvation.
3. Prophets- During the prophets, they reminded the people to keep the covenant.
4. Deuteronomic period- law is a manifestation of God’s will. This period emphasize the need to observe the law. God judges according to man’s obedience or disobedience. Law becomes inner reality.
5. Historical Literature: This literature is a history of salvation. History has been directed by word of God. History is intelligible through the word of God. Important event is the prophecy of Nathan. Here comes the covenant of the establishment of a messianic kingdom and Davidic dynasty becomes the center of salvation. The hope of Israel is eschatological.
6. Exilic Period - The prophetic word becomes the written word. Eat scroll and preach the content of it. After the destruction of Jerusalem the word punishment becomes the word of promise.
7. Duetero - Isaiah - word of God is dynamic and makes history intelligible. It is through the word that Yahweh creates earth. So creation acknowledges his sovereignty. The word guides history. The word is the beginning and the end. The fulfillment of earlier prophesies like deliverance form exile is a guarantee for future things. The infallible efficacy of the word of God is indicated by Is 55.
8. Sapiential Literature - This literature is used as an instrument of revelation. Human experience is made of by God who revealed himself to man to direct his life with prudence. Human experience interpreted by faith in Yahweh is the source of this book. God has the fullness of wisdom which he communicates to man. The wise man will order his life according to God’s law. Wisdom is identified with the word of God creator revealer.
9. Psalms: Psalm is an answer to revelation. It is also a revelation of man’s understanding of God. The nature of God revealed through prophet is reflected in these prayers.
2.1.2 Modes of Revelation in OT
We speaks of two modes or manner how God reveals
2.1.2.1 Divine intervention or Encounter
2.1.2.1.1 Nature
We find this intervention first in nature. Nature is an extension of the idea that creation or creatures are reflections of God. Various phenomena of nature are used by God through which God encounters man to help or punish him. God is not distinct but is accessible. The nearness of God is expressed through these natural phenomena.
2.1.2.1.2 In Human Form
It is divine manifestation in human form. It also describes God’s immanence (Gen 18, 1-2). God appeared as three men in Gen 32, 24-30. Man can encounter God directly but not at the expense of His transcendence.
2.1.2.1.3 Spiritualized Forms of Theophany
Spiritualized form is an indirect manifestation of God, eg. the angel of the Lord. All the narrations of theophany express the personal presence of God in his revealing activity. One of the spiritualized forms is Malak Yahweh. Another spiritualized form is Kabod Yahweh. Kabod means glory. Kabod is the experience of the mighty presence of God. Another one is Panim Yahweh. Panim means face. The face of God is the revelation of grace of God. Face signifies a direct encounter with God. Another one is Shem Yahweh. Shem means name, title etc.
2.1.2.1.4 God’s self manifestation through the spirit and the word.
The spirit of God is the divine life principle and power. Spirit is first of all an agent through whom God acts and intervenes in history. Secondly spirit is the guide and protector of people. The spirit is also the instructor and teacher of people. God enables people to lead and judge by the power of the spirit. Spirit is the saving power of God, cooperating in the universe.
Word of God – Word of God is a major theme in Theology of revelation. Firstly we see the word of God in creation. Revelation takes place through words. The word is the expression of God’s will and plan for the world. The second aspect where we see word is word in history. History is the means and object of revelation. Meaning of history is interpreted by the word of God often through prophets; thus historical events become salvation events. Next where we find word is in commandments. Commandment means Word of God or Will of God. Another area where we see word is in prophets. Word comes to us through the mediation or instrumentality of prophets. It is the word of God which enables prophets to teach and preach. Prophets are given insights about the meaning of events.
2.1.2.2 The mode of Divine Speaking
Mode of divine speaking is found in many ways of God’s thinking. God directly speaks to an individual (Gen 3, 9 – 13). Then God speaks through an intermediary. Normally these intermediaries are prophets. Prophets are the spokespersons of God. Prophets received the word of God not to keep it but to speak it, transmit it, publish it and announce it.
2.1.3 Object and Purpose of revelation in OT
Revelation is the self manifestation of God himself. So the object or content of revelation is God Himself and revelation of his plan of salvation. Salvation is the other object or aspect of OT revelation.
The purpose of Revelation is to know Yahweh. To know Yahweh means an existential understanding of reality. By knowing Yahweh we must come to obedience and trust in Yahweh. The special purpose of revelation is that Israel should accept and acknowledge Yahweh as their only God. The purpose of revelation is also salvation of man.
2.1.4 The Authenticity of Divine Revelation
Knowledge in revelation is not objective knowledge but is qualified as intuitive knowledge, i.e. knowledge about a person. Intuitive knowledge cannot be proved objectively. Knowledge of God is intuitive and cannot be proved objectively. Intuitive knowledge is greater than objective knowledge. Cult is the means by which past events are experienced.
2.2 New Testament Revelation
New Testament Revelation is the final stage or fulfillment of divine revelation. It is Christocentric. It is final stage not because it happens at the end but because that Christ recapitulates the whole of divine revelation.
2.2.1 Christ as the Revealer According to the letter of Hebrews
The Letter to Hebrews presents Christ as the eschatological revealer. It also gives us a comparison between OT and NT. Hebrew presents the excellence of Christ as mediator. His superiority of his priesthood is over OT priesthood. Christ is superior to angels and Moses. It is related to the history of the concept of revelation. Since the son himself spoke, we take it seriously.
Heb 1,1-2 is the essential character of Biblical revelation. (Write the sentence)
A. God spoke (locus dei): Revelation is speech of God. It is the self communication of God. It is the divine initiative. God, being the Summum Bonum, diffuses himself. So self communication of God is his nature itself.
B. Other Means: God’s ways of revelation is various like words, dreams, symbolic actions, visions, etc. Even the ass of Baalam was an agent of revelation. God used many persons as means of revelation especially prophets. Not only human beings but other creatures were used by God.
C. In those days: Contrast with OT and NT. In OT, the modes were prophets and law.
D. Through His Son: “The revelation through Christ is the new and definitive covenant”. The mediator of the new covenant is the Son of God Himself. No one knows Father except through the Son (1Jn 1, 18) - It is He who reveals in New Testament. It is the definitiveness of the new covenant.
E. To us: In those days, revelation was to fathers. Today it is for all men. All have to listen to the revelation for our salvation.
F. “Last Days”- this term shows that revelation has a history. Revelation that starts with creation must be explained. God spoke: Word reveals the inner reality of God Himself.
G. Through Son: Only the Son is the eschatological reveler. It is not in the sense that it is the last in a series of revelation. But he is the definite and perfect reveler. Man cannot see God directly. Now man sees God through Son. How do we come to believe in Son and his teachings? We need internal inspiration to confess the personality of Jesus: Jesus tells to Peter when he confessed Jesus as Christ: “It is my heavenly Father who revealed it to you”. So Christian faith is a gift of God. But only if there is an internal disposition. Father reveals the Messiahship and Sonship of Jesus. Son testifies to the Father. It is mutual witnessing. “Holy Spirit will teach everything what I have taught”. H. Spirit teaches nothing new from what is revealed in Christ. Just as humanity of Christ is an instrument of Word of God, the visible structure of Church is the instrument of H. Spirit. It is the close relationship between H. Spirit and Church. Since Church is a divine and human reality, it is constituted also of sinners.
This revelation is once for all. Christ told Apostles: “You also will be witness to me because you have been with me from the beginning”. The revelation given by Jesus is being perpetuated in the Church through Apostles and their successors. It is the future element of revelation.
2.2.2 Revelation in Synoptic Gospels
Christ is presented as preacher and teacher in Synoptics. The theme of his teaching was the synoptic mystery qualified as kingdom of God. Here salvation is offered in the form of kingdom of God. In synoptic we see people acclaim Jesus as prophet. But Jesus is greater than other prophets. Jesus did not claim the title of a prophet but he sees the destiny of a prophet. The OT rabbis were only interpreters, commending and explaining the teaching of the elders. But Jesus interprets and corrects the law and gives a new meaning to law.
Jesus is also presented as Messiah. The Synoptics proclaimed the messianic faith through the mouth of Peter. The synoptics also present the revelation of Jesus as Son of God. This title is very closely associated with Messiah. Jesus as Son means He has a special or unique relationship with father. None knows the father except me. To know is to have a special relationship which is the basis for the mutual revelation. Father reveals the identity of the son which enables son to reveal the Father in baptism and transfiguration.
In Synoptics, revelation is also the proclamation of the salvation. Faith is accepting this proclamation of salvation. He who believes will be saved. Jesus is revelator in Synoptics. He proclaims the goodness of kingdom and teaches the word of God with a new authority. He reveals the kingdom because he knows the mysteries of the Father. All Gospels end with this missionary command.
2.2.3 St. John on Revelation
John uses the term Logos for revelation. The newness or specialty of John is that he identifies Logos with the Son. The word and wisdom in O.T is not a person. For John Logos is person distinct from Father but is God equal to Father. Word becoming flesh is the uniqueness of Christian tradition. The son is the “inner word of God”. (Jn 1, 18) Christ is the only perfect revealer because of his pre existence as Logos, as son in the Holy Trinity with father and through his incarnation of Logos. His quality of life is rooted in the life of Trinity before and after incarnation. He has permanent relation with the Father.
Jesus revealed by witnessing: To explain the role of Jesus he uses the word witness. Jesus is witness. Jesus speaks what he had seen and heard. Witness has two aspects: A) Communicate the message or knowledge which he reveals based on experience. Jesus had relation with Father. B) His message has a relation to a person - relation to a sender
2.2.4 Acts of the Apostles
Acts is the continuation of synoptics. Jesus commissions Apostles to teach all that he commanded, preach and make disciples. This is the basis of the Acts of the Apostles. Mt. 28 18-20; Mk 16, 16-18. Apostles were commanded to preach only what Jesus taught. The main theme of Jesus was kingdom of God. Since the kingdom of God was fulfilled in Jesus, the theme of Apostles preaching was the person of Jesus himself.
Content of Apostles’ preaching
a) Christ as Lord b) Salvation in Jesus Christ
We find the Apostles continue the revelatory function of Christ through preaching and witnessing. Just as Jesus witnessed the Father, Apostles witnessed Jesus. Between Christ and apostles there was continuity in mission, vision death and Glory. Preaching, teaching and witnessing are the three ways by which they carried out their apostolic mission. Witnessing is regarding resurrection of Christ.
Witnessing and proclaiming that Jesus is the Lord is the content of the Acts of the Apostles. Apostles continue the preaching of Christ according to their Lord’s command until their last breath.
(1) The Salvation in Jesus: Since Jesus is the lord, salvation is only through Jesus. Hence there is no other name by which people can be saved. He is the culmination of the whole prophetic ministry and history. Word of Christ the message of salvation.
(2) Faith according to Acts is accepting the word of God. The Holy Spirit assists the apostolic preaching. The apostolic witness and message handed down to church.
2.2.5 St. Paul on revelation
The word St Paul uses for revelation is mystery. He also use the word Gospel. Gospel is the proclamation of the revealed mystery. For Paul revelation has two dimension: cosmic and Christic.
1) Cosmic- through creation or natural revelation (Rom 1, 18 ff.; 2 14,16)
2) Christic: Christ is the centre of all creation. Col 1, 15-20. He speaks of Christ as the perfect image of God in the first creation. He is the centre of the all creation. Christ is the perfect message of God. He is the center of new creation and every thing is created in and through him. For Paul God is the revealer as in O.T.
The Mystery- for Paul Mystery is God’s plan for salvation for mankind. Mystery has a history; that is hidden in the mind of God but is realized in the life, death and resurrection of Christ. Christ is the content of the mystery of God.
Paul also uses the term word (Word of God , word of Jesus- 1Thess 2,13). He also uses word of salvation, word of truth, word of life, word of reconciliation. The purpose of mystery or revelation is for the salvation of man and glory and praise of God. In the Epistle to Ephesus, Mystery becomes an event in Jesus. Mystery is first communicated to a privileged group. Apostles are the foundations of Christ event. So foundation cannot be removed or replaced. Then apostolic succession is the office and teaching to be continued and succeeded.
2.2.5.1 Different stages of Mystery:
Mystery is the revealed will of God.
(a) Hidden long ages.
(b) Access through prophets.
(c) Revealed through Jesus.
2.2.6 Conclusion to New Testament
1. N.T revelation is the fulfillment of revelation. But we cannot limit the fulfillment fully to N.T revelation because it is still accomplished- already not yet- eschatological dimension of revelation. So eastern theology speakes of the hiddenness of God even after revelation.
2. The establishment of New covenant: O.T wascovenant established by animal’s blood but in the new covenant offerer and victim are the same- by the blood of Christ. Interiority is the heart of the new covenant. The offering of the self is the best offering to God.
3. Jesus as messiah: Lordship of messiah is the prophesy of O.T. It was fulfilled in the life and teachings of Christ.
4. Death and resurrection of Jesus: These both are the supreme events in the self revelation of God. Without death and resurrection there is no revelation.
5. Sending of the Holy Spirit: Christ guaranteed Spirit will bring to remembrance all what is taught by Jesus.
6. Sending of Apostles: There is an essential continuity between work of Christ and mission of Apostle. Church is not the continuation of incarnation but the continuation of the incarnated Christ. N.T revelation is called the foundational revelation. Revelation was mediated by the apostles which gave rise to faith and founding of the Church. So Church cannot deviate from this foundation. Church is founded on the foundation of prophets and apostles. Then when is the public revelation closed? Usually it is said that with the death of the last apostle, public revelation stopped. But Karl Rahnner and so as called that even apostles were only mediators so public revelation stopped with paschal mysteries of Christ that is with the sending of Holy Spirit.
3 Dogmatic Evolution on Revelation
3.1 Modernism
Modernism attacked the notions of revelation, faith and dogma. For them, revelation is reduces to subjective human experience. The objective aspect of revelation is not given importance. This was later adopted by Protestants. The Church reacted to it through the decree lamentabili which condemned the articles of modernism. The decree emphasized the objective aspect of revelation. Revelation is a doctrine received from God and given in Scripture.
3.2 Revelation and Council of Trent
Luther’s criticism is the context of this council. The hold of Luther and other major Protestants is that human nature is corrupted. So man by his reason cannot know the divine truth and cannot do good. So the objective manifestation has no effect on man since his reason is wounded. So man is justified not by any external works that is by sacraments etc. but by faith in Jesus Christ. So role of priest, sacraments, mediation of Church etc. were rejected by Luther.
Council of Trent came against this. It spoke of two ways of knowing God- natural and supernatural. Trent makes use of the word Gospel for revelation. This Gospel is the doctrine of salvation. This is source of all saving truths and moral disciplines. Trent is explaining holds of using scripture. The Gospel emphasizes the message of salvation. This Gospel was promised by prophets realized through Jesus Christ preached by Apostles handed down to the Church, practiced and preached by Church. The Church is the custodian of the deposit of faith. Gospel is contained in the tradition. This is the main position of the council of Trent.
3.2 Vatican Council 1
Rationalism and Fedeism influenced Vatican council I. Pope Pius IX rejected “rationalism’. Reason has an important role to inquire into the fact of divine revelation. Council formed two constitutions - Dei Filus (son of God) and Pastore Aeternus. Dei Filius has 4 chapters. We speak of the second chapter. Revelation is dealt with reason, tradition ad scripture. Scripture and tradition are the channels through which the revelation is given.
Council spoke about two ways of knowing God. They are the ways of ascending and descending. The ascending way is of natural knowledge by reason. Man by reason ascends to God. in the descending way of revelation, God comes down to us.
3.3 Vatican Council 11 - On Dei Verbum
Dei Verbum is the Vatican document on divine revelation promulgated on 18th Nov. 1965. This document has 26 paragraphs in 6 chapters. The first chapter speaks on revelation itself. Man cannot understand the nature of god by natural reasoning. For knowing God, we need the super natural revelation that is God’s initiative. God wishes man to have access to the Father through Christ in the Holy Spirit for which he reveals Himself through the only Son (Heb 1, 1). The chapter two speaks of the transmission of the divine revelation. Tradition and the scripture are the two channels of revelation. They are closely inter-related and they complement each other and the Church is entrusted on the deposit of the revelation as she is commissioned by Christ. It is after the commandment of Christ, Church transmit the revelation in its integrity to generations. Revelation in its integrity refers to both the O.T. and the N.T. Christ has completed the revelation and there is no scope for a further revelation. What is possible is the interpretation of the revelation. The third chapter speaks about the divine inspiration and the interpretation of the sacred scripture.
The fourth and the fifth chapter speak about the Old Testament and the New Testament respectively. The apostles preached first orally the gospel, as per the commandment of Jesus. The communication of the gospel included the communication of the salvation through word and the sacraments and the office of the Church. The bishops were handed over the authority of teaching by the apostles in their place. The mystery of Christ is perpetuated by the apostles according to the command of the lord. They also fulfilled the command of the lord by making record of the good news under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit either personally or by disciples. Hence we have the two forms of handing on of the divine revelation, the tradition and the scripture. These two are like a mirror in which the pilgrim Church on earth looks at God. There are two ways of transmitting revelation; horizontal and vertical. Vertical transmission is by Christ and the Holy Spirit to the apostles where as horizontal transmission is continued in the Church by the successors of the apostles who are the bishops; hence they have to keep it whole as alive in the Church.
3.3.1 Jesus is the climax of revelation
NT revelation has superiority over OT revelation. OT and NT are different in manner, form, people addressed and the mediator. Jesus is the fulfillment and climax of the OT and NT revelation. Why Christ is the climax of revelation? It is because God has sent His Only Son. This Only Son perfectly reveals the Father. Son is the perfect reveler and the Trinity is the supreme object of revelation.
3.3.2 Christ is the eschatological revealer
Christ is the climax of all revelation. Christ’s second coming will complete the divine revelation. Jesus perfected revelation by fulfilling it through his whole work of making Himself present and manifesting Himself especially through His death, resurrection and finally through sending the spirit.
4. General Conclusion
We have been going through different phases of revelation. God employed various ways to communicate and expose himself. God spoke through the fathers and prophets in the former days and in the later days he spoke through His Son Jesus Christ (Heb 1,1). Thus there is a connection between those OT and NT periods. This revelation is centered in Christ Himself. The phrase ‘last days’ indicates the eschatological days.
Jesus is the perfect and definitive revelation. Because we see the father only through the son. There is no possibility of further revelation. But we have only the interpretation of the revelation. What we expect in future is the Parousia of the Lord which is the completion of revelation.
What is the uniqueness of Christian experience of God or what make the Christian different from the other religions? The answer is that the Christian experience is based on the supernatural revelation, while the others are based on natural revelation.
According to Paul Tillich, Theology of revelation is a systematic reflection of Church’s experience and understanding of God who reveled Himself in Jesus Christ. Therefor revelation is Christocentric. Revelation is a personal self disclosure of God in his Word (Heb 1, 1-2). There is a personal character of God’s revelation. In revelation, God is not an ‘it’ but an ‘I’ and a ‘Thou’.
Revelation is the object and content of Theology. According to K. Rahner, “Theology is the conscious and methodical explanation and explication of the divine revelation received and grasped in faith in Christ. Theology deals with revealing God and believing man. Faith and revelation go together i.e., faith is the response to divine revelation.
The divine plan of revelation involves a specific divine pedagogy. God communicated himself to man gradually. He prepares man to welcome the perfect manifestation in the person and mission of the Incarnate Word, Jesus Christ. Revelation is teleologically oriented towards Christ, the omega point.
1 Basic Notions Regarding Revelation
1.1 Etymological Meaning of Revelation
Velum means Veil or Curtain. Velare means to cover up. Revelare means to remove the curtain. Revelation means removing the veil or curtain. God comes freely out of his hiddenness. Revelation is the supernatural manifestation by God of Himself and the divine plan of salvation. In Greek it is apokalypsis and in Latin revelatio.
1.2 Other expressions of Revelation
1, logos – word of God
2, epiphaneia – appearances
3, gnosis – knowledge
4, phanerosis – manifestation
5, aletheia – truth
1.3 Relation between revelation and faith
St. Anselm defines theology as faith seeking understanding. Faith and revelation go together i.e., faith is the response to divine revelation. Revelation is the content of faith. Revelation is a must for faith. Revelation is disclosure of something hidden.
1.4 Revelation as Self Communion of God
There are two approaches to revelation. They are propositional approach and personalistic approach.
1.4.1 Propositional approach
Here revelation is more understood as proposition, statements of truth, creeds, doctrines or dogmas. It is more intellectual. Revelation is understood here as the answers given to intellectual questions. In propositional approach, revelation is more connected with believing. Revelation is a dogma to be believed.
1.4.2 Personalistic approach
Today revelation is seen by a more personalistic (subjectivistic) approach based on experience. Man is not satisfied by knowing something. For the people who knew the death of Jesus, it is like the death of Socrates. But to see Jesus’ death as sacrifice, it must be interpreted in relation to my life. So factual statements must become value statements. It happens only when ‘I’ enter into ‘it’.
Modern theology calls revelation as self communion of God. It is based on the personalistic approach. Here we cannot ask the question what is revealed, but who is revealed. In this personalistic approach, we cannot understand revelation by intellect alone. No one can speak about God, except God himself.
Interpersonal relation in DV is depicted in the term ‘dialogue’. What God communicates in dialogue is not knowledge or doctrine, but his life. It is a call to be in communion with God and to share in divine life. Revelation is God’s self gift. Revelation is personal as I – Thou relationship. This self communication is out of God’s love for man and it shows his concern for revelation.
1.5 Progressive nature of revelation
The progressive nature of revelation is evident from the Bible itself. NT is the continuation of OT. NT is the fulfillment of the OT prophesies. This progressive nature is through history of salvation.
1.6 Revelation and Tradition
Revelation is the supernatural manifestation by God Himself and the decrees of His will. This manifestation is contained in tradition that comes from Christ through the Apostles and in scriptures inspired by the Holy Spirit. Apostles testified that revelation has reached its climax in Jesus Christ. It does not mean that revelation is not further clarified. Here our understanding of the divine revelation is increased. It is the right meaning of tradition.
1.7 Revelation and Theology
Theology is the study and interpretation of revelation. There are so many mediators or media for divine revelations. Mediators can be any natural object or natural events. Historical events become events of revelation or salvation through interpretation. In OT prophets interpreted the historical events and in NT, the Apostles. Revelation becomes through interpretation. Theology can never go beyond authentic revelation.
1.8 Different types of Revelation
1.8.1 Active and Objective Revelation
Active revelation is a process of God’s self revelation extending over a long period in history.
Objective revelation is the content or deposit of knowledge or wisdom etc which is the result of God’s manifestation.
1.8.2 Immediate and Mediate Revelation
Immediate revelation is the revelation received by men directly from God. Christ is the only direct mediator.
Mediate revelation mans revelation handed down by the first recipients to latter generations i.e. handed down through generations.
1.8.3 Natural and Supernatural Revelation
Natural revelation can be understood as the manifestation of God through the regular order of nature i.e. through the modes of nature.
Supernatural revelation – Natural revelation is not sufficient, a confirmation of it is needed. Supernatural revelation confirms natural revelation. Divine realities can be more clearly understood by the light of faith than by the light of reason.
1.8.4 General and Special revelation
General revelation is through reason. Special revelation is through faith. Special revelation is an affirmation and negation of general revelation.
1.8.5 Public and Private Revelation
Public revelation means official. This revelation is for all human beings. Every person is bound with public revelation in Christ
Private revelation is for an individual or group to make relevant the significance of Christ event. The aim of private revelation is to clarify the purpose of public revelation or Christ event in a particular period. Public revelation is meant for all believers of a community whereas private revelation is given to a person or community. Public revelation takes its origin and is concerned with the person of Jesus Christ as God’s definitive revelation to mankind.
2 Biblical basis of Revelation
There is a progressive growth in the biblical basis of revelation. Bible gives us a progressive growth of revelation of salvation history.
Supernatural revelation takes place in history. It is through the ‘Word’, God spoke in history. The word announces divine plan of salvation and demands a response from our part. Israel was the spokesmen to his revelation. OT history of revelation begins with the word of creation and ends with the word made flesh.
2.1 Old Testament Revelation
It was not easy even for Israel to understand certain historical events as salvific. The key to understand historical event as part of revelation is the word of God which is interpreted on behalf of God by the prophets and law. Law and prophets ate the two important forms of historical revelation in OT. God reveals himself through His mediator – Prophet. The history of Israel is constituted by a series of divine interventions. So history of Israel is salvation history.
2.1.1 Different sages of OT revelation
These stages are studied basing on thematically or according to different books. They are,
2.1.1.1 Creation
The OT begins with the account of creation (Gen 1&2). This can be considered as the beginning of history. Creation is taken place through word that God uttered: let there be. Creation took place by the word of the Lord. (Wis 9, 1 ff)
What does the term Word mean?
Word is the medium to communicate. It contains and expresses and idea. Word is the within of things. Word also reflects the personality of reality to a person who utters the word. Dabar has two meanings – 1, idea & 2, breath (ruah). When a person utters a word, it not only expresses an idea but a power comes out also. So when God spoke, His power was expressed in creation. Divine word never returns without effect. The whole creation is the concrete self-communication of God. Among creation we see a special creation i.e. man (in His own image and likeness). Man is made the Lord of universe to take care, exercise power over universe because man participates in the very being of God. Man is created not merely by the word but God acted out the word, breathing the life into man. Man is given a very special share of God’s power.
2.1.1.2 Call of Abraham
Historical level begins with Abraham and Moses. The promise is given in chapter12 and making of covenant in chapter 15. The events between creation and call of Abraham are only preparation for the call. The call of Abraham was to constitute a people. So the OT is the history of people of the Israel constituted by means of Abraham.
2.1.1.3 Election
Election is making a people, that is done through covenant. The covenant is the center of all things Yahweh made with Israel. The covenant people accept Yahweh as their God. They became God’s people. Covenant has obligations. It demands certain things. God will always fulfill his promise; people have to fulfill their parts.
2.1.1.4 Judgment of people
Judgment is made not by Yahweh but people brought it as themselves because they were not faithful to covenant. They suffered many calamities both natural and spiritual. The non obedience to covenant is relay the judgment. The Assyrian exile and Babylonian exile are the consequences of their disobedience. Prophets warned people and interpreted these calamities as punishment of Yahweh for their disobedience.
2.1.1.5 Promise of Restoration
Promise is the new and definitive intervention of Yahweh to people. Post exilic prophets spoke about restoration of Yahweh – people relation. Eg. Jer 31, 31-32: a new covenant which is superior to old one. The history of Israel is the reflection of word of God and the revelation of God is always continuing – on going process.
These stages are also called:
1. Patriarchal revelation - Manifestation of theophanies. God’s own personal manifestation to fathers.
2. Sinaic covenant - Content is the lordship of Yahweh. Purpose of this covenant is salvation.
3. Prophets- During the prophets, they reminded the people to keep the covenant.
4. Deuteronomic period- law is a manifestation of God’s will. This period emphasize the need to observe the law. God judges according to man’s obedience or disobedience. Law becomes inner reality.
5. Historical Literature: This literature is a history of salvation. History has been directed by word of God. History is intelligible through the word of God. Important event is the prophecy of Nathan. Here comes the covenant of the establishment of a messianic kingdom and Davidic dynasty becomes the center of salvation. The hope of Israel is eschatological.
6. Exilic Period - The prophetic word becomes the written word. Eat scroll and preach the content of it. After the destruction of Jerusalem the word punishment becomes the word of promise.
7. Duetero - Isaiah - word of God is dynamic and makes history intelligible. It is through the word that Yahweh creates earth. So creation acknowledges his sovereignty. The word guides history. The word is the beginning and the end. The fulfillment of earlier prophesies like deliverance form exile is a guarantee for future things. The infallible efficacy of the word of God is indicated by Is 55.
8. Sapiential Literature - This literature is used as an instrument of revelation. Human experience is made of by God who revealed himself to man to direct his life with prudence. Human experience interpreted by faith in Yahweh is the source of this book. God has the fullness of wisdom which he communicates to man. The wise man will order his life according to God’s law. Wisdom is identified with the word of God creator revealer.
9. Psalms: Psalm is an answer to revelation. It is also a revelation of man’s understanding of God. The nature of God revealed through prophet is reflected in these prayers.
2.1.2 Modes of Revelation in OT
We speaks of two modes or manner how God reveals
2.1.2.1 Divine intervention or Encounter
2.1.2.1.1 Nature
We find this intervention first in nature. Nature is an extension of the idea that creation or creatures are reflections of God. Various phenomena of nature are used by God through which God encounters man to help or punish him. God is not distinct but is accessible. The nearness of God is expressed through these natural phenomena.
2.1.2.1.2 In Human Form
It is divine manifestation in human form. It also describes God’s immanence (Gen 18, 1-2). God appeared as three men in Gen 32, 24-30. Man can encounter God directly but not at the expense of His transcendence.
2.1.2.1.3 Spiritualized Forms of Theophany
Spiritualized form is an indirect manifestation of God, eg. the angel of the Lord. All the narrations of theophany express the personal presence of God in his revealing activity. One of the spiritualized forms is Malak Yahweh. Another spiritualized form is Kabod Yahweh. Kabod means glory. Kabod is the experience of the mighty presence of God. Another one is Panim Yahweh. Panim means face. The face of God is the revelation of grace of God. Face signifies a direct encounter with God. Another one is Shem Yahweh. Shem means name, title etc.
2.1.2.1.4 God’s self manifestation through the spirit and the word.
The spirit of God is the divine life principle and power. Spirit is first of all an agent through whom God acts and intervenes in history. Secondly spirit is the guide and protector of people. The spirit is also the instructor and teacher of people. God enables people to lead and judge by the power of the spirit. Spirit is the saving power of God, cooperating in the universe.
Word of God – Word of God is a major theme in Theology of revelation. Firstly we see the word of God in creation. Revelation takes place through words. The word is the expression of God’s will and plan for the world. The second aspect where we see word is word in history. History is the means and object of revelation. Meaning of history is interpreted by the word of God often through prophets; thus historical events become salvation events. Next where we find word is in commandments. Commandment means Word of God or Will of God. Another area where we see word is in prophets. Word comes to us through the mediation or instrumentality of prophets. It is the word of God which enables prophets to teach and preach. Prophets are given insights about the meaning of events.
2.1.2.2 The mode of Divine Speaking
Mode of divine speaking is found in many ways of God’s thinking. God directly speaks to an individual (Gen 3, 9 – 13). Then God speaks through an intermediary. Normally these intermediaries are prophets. Prophets are the spokespersons of God. Prophets received the word of God not to keep it but to speak it, transmit it, publish it and announce it.
2.1.3 Object and Purpose of revelation in OT
Revelation is the self manifestation of God himself. So the object or content of revelation is God Himself and revelation of his plan of salvation. Salvation is the other object or aspect of OT revelation.
The purpose of Revelation is to know Yahweh. To know Yahweh means an existential understanding of reality. By knowing Yahweh we must come to obedience and trust in Yahweh. The special purpose of revelation is that Israel should accept and acknowledge Yahweh as their only God. The purpose of revelation is also salvation of man.
2.1.4 The Authenticity of Divine Revelation
Knowledge in revelation is not objective knowledge but is qualified as intuitive knowledge, i.e. knowledge about a person. Intuitive knowledge cannot be proved objectively. Knowledge of God is intuitive and cannot be proved objectively. Intuitive knowledge is greater than objective knowledge. Cult is the means by which past events are experienced.
2.2 New Testament Revelation
New Testament Revelation is the final stage or fulfillment of divine revelation. It is Christocentric. It is final stage not because it happens at the end but because that Christ recapitulates the whole of divine revelation.
2.2.1 Christ as the Revealer According to the letter of Hebrews
The Letter to Hebrews presents Christ as the eschatological revealer. It also gives us a comparison between OT and NT. Hebrew presents the excellence of Christ as mediator. His superiority of his priesthood is over OT priesthood. Christ is superior to angels and Moses. It is related to the history of the concept of revelation. Since the son himself spoke, we take it seriously.
Heb 1,1-2 is the essential character of Biblical revelation. (Write the sentence)
A. God spoke (locus dei): Revelation is speech of God. It is the self communication of God. It is the divine initiative. God, being the Summum Bonum, diffuses himself. So self communication of God is his nature itself.
B. Other Means: God’s ways of revelation is various like words, dreams, symbolic actions, visions, etc. Even the ass of Baalam was an agent of revelation. God used many persons as means of revelation especially prophets. Not only human beings but other creatures were used by God.
C. In those days: Contrast with OT and NT. In OT, the modes were prophets and law.
D. Through His Son: “The revelation through Christ is the new and definitive covenant”. The mediator of the new covenant is the Son of God Himself. No one knows Father except through the Son (1Jn 1, 18) - It is He who reveals in New Testament. It is the definitiveness of the new covenant.
E. To us: In those days, revelation was to fathers. Today it is for all men. All have to listen to the revelation for our salvation.
F. “Last Days”- this term shows that revelation has a history. Revelation that starts with creation must be explained. God spoke: Word reveals the inner reality of God Himself.
G. Through Son: Only the Son is the eschatological reveler. It is not in the sense that it is the last in a series of revelation. But he is the definite and perfect reveler. Man cannot see God directly. Now man sees God through Son. How do we come to believe in Son and his teachings? We need internal inspiration to confess the personality of Jesus: Jesus tells to Peter when he confessed Jesus as Christ: “It is my heavenly Father who revealed it to you”. So Christian faith is a gift of God. But only if there is an internal disposition. Father reveals the Messiahship and Sonship of Jesus. Son testifies to the Father. It is mutual witnessing. “Holy Spirit will teach everything what I have taught”. H. Spirit teaches nothing new from what is revealed in Christ. Just as humanity of Christ is an instrument of Word of God, the visible structure of Church is the instrument of H. Spirit. It is the close relationship between H. Spirit and Church. Since Church is a divine and human reality, it is constituted also of sinners.
This revelation is once for all. Christ told Apostles: “You also will be witness to me because you have been with me from the beginning”. The revelation given by Jesus is being perpetuated in the Church through Apostles and their successors. It is the future element of revelation.
2.2.2 Revelation in Synoptic Gospels
Christ is presented as preacher and teacher in Synoptics. The theme of his teaching was the synoptic mystery qualified as kingdom of God. Here salvation is offered in the form of kingdom of God. In synoptic we see people acclaim Jesus as prophet. But Jesus is greater than other prophets. Jesus did not claim the title of a prophet but he sees the destiny of a prophet. The OT rabbis were only interpreters, commending and explaining the teaching of the elders. But Jesus interprets and corrects the law and gives a new meaning to law.
Jesus is also presented as Messiah. The Synoptics proclaimed the messianic faith through the mouth of Peter. The synoptics also present the revelation of Jesus as Son of God. This title is very closely associated with Messiah. Jesus as Son means He has a special or unique relationship with father. None knows the father except me. To know is to have a special relationship which is the basis for the mutual revelation. Father reveals the identity of the son which enables son to reveal the Father in baptism and transfiguration.
In Synoptics, revelation is also the proclamation of the salvation. Faith is accepting this proclamation of salvation. He who believes will be saved. Jesus is revelator in Synoptics. He proclaims the goodness of kingdom and teaches the word of God with a new authority. He reveals the kingdom because he knows the mysteries of the Father. All Gospels end with this missionary command.
2.2.3 St. John on Revelation
John uses the term Logos for revelation. The newness or specialty of John is that he identifies Logos with the Son. The word and wisdom in O.T is not a person. For John Logos is person distinct from Father but is God equal to Father. Word becoming flesh is the uniqueness of Christian tradition. The son is the “inner word of God”. (Jn 1, 18) Christ is the only perfect revealer because of his pre existence as Logos, as son in the Holy Trinity with father and through his incarnation of Logos. His quality of life is rooted in the life of Trinity before and after incarnation. He has permanent relation with the Father.
Jesus revealed by witnessing: To explain the role of Jesus he uses the word witness. Jesus is witness. Jesus speaks what he had seen and heard. Witness has two aspects: A) Communicate the message or knowledge which he reveals based on experience. Jesus had relation with Father. B) His message has a relation to a person - relation to a sender
2.2.4 Acts of the Apostles
Acts is the continuation of synoptics. Jesus commissions Apostles to teach all that he commanded, preach and make disciples. This is the basis of the Acts of the Apostles. Mt. 28 18-20; Mk 16, 16-18. Apostles were commanded to preach only what Jesus taught. The main theme of Jesus was kingdom of God. Since the kingdom of God was fulfilled in Jesus, the theme of Apostles preaching was the person of Jesus himself.
Content of Apostles’ preaching
a) Christ as Lord b) Salvation in Jesus Christ
We find the Apostles continue the revelatory function of Christ through preaching and witnessing. Just as Jesus witnessed the Father, Apostles witnessed Jesus. Between Christ and apostles there was continuity in mission, vision death and Glory. Preaching, teaching and witnessing are the three ways by which they carried out their apostolic mission. Witnessing is regarding resurrection of Christ.
Witnessing and proclaiming that Jesus is the Lord is the content of the Acts of the Apostles. Apostles continue the preaching of Christ according to their Lord’s command until their last breath.
(1) The Salvation in Jesus: Since Jesus is the lord, salvation is only through Jesus. Hence there is no other name by which people can be saved. He is the culmination of the whole prophetic ministry and history. Word of Christ the message of salvation.
(2) Faith according to Acts is accepting the word of God. The Holy Spirit assists the apostolic preaching. The apostolic witness and message handed down to church.
2.2.5 St. Paul on revelation
The word St Paul uses for revelation is mystery. He also use the word Gospel. Gospel is the proclamation of the revealed mystery. For Paul revelation has two dimension: cosmic and Christic.
1) Cosmic- through creation or natural revelation (Rom 1, 18 ff.; 2 14,16)
2) Christic: Christ is the centre of all creation. Col 1, 15-20. He speaks of Christ as the perfect image of God in the first creation. He is the centre of the all creation. Christ is the perfect message of God. He is the center of new creation and every thing is created in and through him. For Paul God is the revealer as in O.T.
The Mystery- for Paul Mystery is God’s plan for salvation for mankind. Mystery has a history; that is hidden in the mind of God but is realized in the life, death and resurrection of Christ. Christ is the content of the mystery of God.
Paul also uses the term word (Word of God , word of Jesus- 1Thess 2,13). He also uses word of salvation, word of truth, word of life, word of reconciliation. The purpose of mystery or revelation is for the salvation of man and glory and praise of God. In the Epistle to Ephesus, Mystery becomes an event in Jesus. Mystery is first communicated to a privileged group. Apostles are the foundations of Christ event. So foundation cannot be removed or replaced. Then apostolic succession is the office and teaching to be continued and succeeded.
2.2.5.1 Different stages of Mystery:
Mystery is the revealed will of God.
(a) Hidden long ages.
(b) Access through prophets.
(c) Revealed through Jesus.
2.2.6 Conclusion to New Testament
1. N.T revelation is the fulfillment of revelation. But we cannot limit the fulfillment fully to N.T revelation because it is still accomplished- already not yet- eschatological dimension of revelation. So eastern theology speakes of the hiddenness of God even after revelation.
2. The establishment of New covenant: O.T wascovenant established by animal’s blood but in the new covenant offerer and victim are the same- by the blood of Christ. Interiority is the heart of the new covenant. The offering of the self is the best offering to God.
3. Jesus as messiah: Lordship of messiah is the prophesy of O.T. It was fulfilled in the life and teachings of Christ.
4. Death and resurrection of Jesus: These both are the supreme events in the self revelation of God. Without death and resurrection there is no revelation.
5. Sending of the Holy Spirit: Christ guaranteed Spirit will bring to remembrance all what is taught by Jesus.
6. Sending of Apostles: There is an essential continuity between work of Christ and mission of Apostle. Church is not the continuation of incarnation but the continuation of the incarnated Christ. N.T revelation is called the foundational revelation. Revelation was mediated by the apostles which gave rise to faith and founding of the Church. So Church cannot deviate from this foundation. Church is founded on the foundation of prophets and apostles. Then when is the public revelation closed? Usually it is said that with the death of the last apostle, public revelation stopped. But Karl Rahnner and so as called that even apostles were only mediators so public revelation stopped with paschal mysteries of Christ that is with the sending of Holy Spirit.
3 Dogmatic Evolution on Revelation
3.1 Modernism
Modernism attacked the notions of revelation, faith and dogma. For them, revelation is reduces to subjective human experience. The objective aspect of revelation is not given importance. This was later adopted by Protestants. The Church reacted to it through the decree lamentabili which condemned the articles of modernism. The decree emphasized the objective aspect of revelation. Revelation is a doctrine received from God and given in Scripture.
3.2 Revelation and Council of Trent
Luther’s criticism is the context of this council. The hold of Luther and other major Protestants is that human nature is corrupted. So man by his reason cannot know the divine truth and cannot do good. So the objective manifestation has no effect on man since his reason is wounded. So man is justified not by any external works that is by sacraments etc. but by faith in Jesus Christ. So role of priest, sacraments, mediation of Church etc. were rejected by Luther.
Council of Trent came against this. It spoke of two ways of knowing God- natural and supernatural. Trent makes use of the word Gospel for revelation. This Gospel is the doctrine of salvation. This is source of all saving truths and moral disciplines. Trent is explaining holds of using scripture. The Gospel emphasizes the message of salvation. This Gospel was promised by prophets realized through Jesus Christ preached by Apostles handed down to the Church, practiced and preached by Church. The Church is the custodian of the deposit of faith. Gospel is contained in the tradition. This is the main position of the council of Trent.
3.2 Vatican Council 1
Rationalism and Fedeism influenced Vatican council I. Pope Pius IX rejected “rationalism’. Reason has an important role to inquire into the fact of divine revelation. Council formed two constitutions - Dei Filus (son of God) and Pastore Aeternus. Dei Filius has 4 chapters. We speak of the second chapter. Revelation is dealt with reason, tradition ad scripture. Scripture and tradition are the channels through which the revelation is given.
Council spoke about two ways of knowing God. They are the ways of ascending and descending. The ascending way is of natural knowledge by reason. Man by reason ascends to God. in the descending way of revelation, God comes down to us.
3.3 Vatican Council 11 - On Dei Verbum
Dei Verbum is the Vatican document on divine revelation promulgated on 18th Nov. 1965. This document has 26 paragraphs in 6 chapters. The first chapter speaks on revelation itself. Man cannot understand the nature of god by natural reasoning. For knowing God, we need the super natural revelation that is God’s initiative. God wishes man to have access to the Father through Christ in the Holy Spirit for which he reveals Himself through the only Son (Heb 1, 1). The chapter two speaks of the transmission of the divine revelation. Tradition and the scripture are the two channels of revelation. They are closely inter-related and they complement each other and the Church is entrusted on the deposit of the revelation as she is commissioned by Christ. It is after the commandment of Christ, Church transmit the revelation in its integrity to generations. Revelation in its integrity refers to both the O.T. and the N.T. Christ has completed the revelation and there is no scope for a further revelation. What is possible is the interpretation of the revelation. The third chapter speaks about the divine inspiration and the interpretation of the sacred scripture.
The fourth and the fifth chapter speak about the Old Testament and the New Testament respectively. The apostles preached first orally the gospel, as per the commandment of Jesus. The communication of the gospel included the communication of the salvation through word and the sacraments and the office of the Church. The bishops were handed over the authority of teaching by the apostles in their place. The mystery of Christ is perpetuated by the apostles according to the command of the lord. They also fulfilled the command of the lord by making record of the good news under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit either personally or by disciples. Hence we have the two forms of handing on of the divine revelation, the tradition and the scripture. These two are like a mirror in which the pilgrim Church on earth looks at God. There are two ways of transmitting revelation; horizontal and vertical. Vertical transmission is by Christ and the Holy Spirit to the apostles where as horizontal transmission is continued in the Church by the successors of the apostles who are the bishops; hence they have to keep it whole as alive in the Church.
3.3.1 Jesus is the climax of revelation
NT revelation has superiority over OT revelation. OT and NT are different in manner, form, people addressed and the mediator. Jesus is the fulfillment and climax of the OT and NT revelation. Why Christ is the climax of revelation? It is because God has sent His Only Son. This Only Son perfectly reveals the Father. Son is the perfect reveler and the Trinity is the supreme object of revelation.
3.3.2 Christ is the eschatological revealer
Christ is the climax of all revelation. Christ’s second coming will complete the divine revelation. Jesus perfected revelation by fulfilling it through his whole work of making Himself present and manifesting Himself especially through His death, resurrection and finally through sending the spirit.
4. General Conclusion
We have been going through different phases of revelation. God employed various ways to communicate and expose himself. God spoke through the fathers and prophets in the former days and in the later days he spoke through His Son Jesus Christ (Heb 1,1). Thus there is a connection between those OT and NT periods. This revelation is centered in Christ Himself. The phrase ‘last days’ indicates the eschatological days.
Jesus is the perfect and definitive revelation. Because we see the father only through the son. There is no possibility of further revelation. But we have only the interpretation of the revelation. What we expect in future is the Parousia of the Lord which is the completion of revelation.
Ecclesiology - The church is from Jesus Christ in its sacramental origin
The church is from Jesus Christ in its sacramental origin, in Jesus Christ by its Trinitarian nature, of Jesus Christ with its unique divine dimensions and for Jesus Christ through its threefold ministries.
1. General introduction
God gave a person then a proclamation and then a people. This is the historical and the theological order. God gave first a person, Jesus Christ as the object of faith and the basis of our salvation. The proclamation centers in the person. He is the centre of the message preached. The proclaimed word calls and gathers a people. The people respond to the proclamation of the person. The church is derived from the word o f the gospel and from the Christ who is the word. The oral message about Jesus Christ gathered a people and so created a church.
The church has a mission to the world so far a s it carries on the ministries of Christ. He came to preach and to save the world. From the parable of the sower we know that the seed is the word of god and the field is the whole world. Jesus gave a stroke and the disciples started the harvest at Pentecost. The church has to exercise the same task at the present time of secularism, because man, the object of salvation lives in the world and because the church and the world are ordered to god’s kingdom at the end.
The church is aware of the plan of god and co operates in the establishment of the kingdom through the god given energies that make it an ecclesial institution and causality of grace. While the church knows the purpose of its existence the world strives by itself to achieve truth and justice. It fails though because the absolute good is god himself. The ultimate wisdom is the wisdom of the cross and the salvation of man comes through the divine law of love. Only the church is the animating power that can help the world find its nature and grace. It is by the gospel of Christ and the means of his grace that the church has to renew itself while it leaves in the world and works for the work of Christ till he comes.
1.1 Meaning
The term church come from the Greek word ‘ekklesia’ the called out, the community of believers who experience salvation in Christ. In Hebrew the word for church is ‘qhall yhwh’ the community of the lord. So it’s a community called by god for god and in god. The popular meaning is the people of god ie. The people called out, called together, to be his people, by god himself. The Greek idea of ecclesiology is more Christocentric. Ecclesia appears 114 times in the NT. By St. Paul 46 times it is used.
1.2 Dimensions
Ecclesiology has both divine and human dimensions.
Ecclesiology from above – divine – church is created in the image of the triune community. Also we say church is the body of Christ ie something supernatural. Also we say church is the temple of the Holy Spirit. It is a religious reality.
Ecclesiology from below- human- here we understand church as institution, structure etc. it is a social reality having historical existence and horizontal dimensions. Church is the pilgrim people of god.
1.3 Levels
We can study ecclesiology from different perspectives: looking at from different angles.
1. Subjective- we are the church and we want to study it from within.
Objective – we look it from outside especially the institutional church.
2. Personal - how am I related to the church or what is my role in the church.
Social – I cannot just be personal. Communal dimension. Role of the parish or diocese in a particular situation.
3. Theological- Everything has to be centered on Christ.
Dialogical – about 150 churches. Ecumenical efforts. Need to know the uniqueness of Christianity.
4. universal – all the churches are to continue the mission of Christ.
Contextual – actualize this mission in various contexts by understanding the context.
1.4 Stages
Bellarmine – the first treaty of ecclesiology was written by Bellarmine (1542-1602), a Jesuit. It was in the context of the attack of the Protestants towards the hierarchy and institutional nature of the Catholic Church. According to him church is a perfect society. For him the nature of church is like a pyramid. The climax of his ecclesiology was the time of the end of Vat 1.
Vatican 1
Dogmatic constitution – ‘Pastor Aeternuson,’ the church of Christ 1870. Vat 1 dealt with the role of the church as a guardian and teacher of the revealed word. Vat 1 speaks of the institution and foundation of the church, the power of nature of the primacy of Roman Pontiff, the infallible magisterium of the Roman Pontiff etc. (Christian Faith 818-840).
Vat 11
The context is the Copernican revolution. Biblical, patristic, liturgical, ecumenical studies and missionary consciousness were given importance. There was a shift from ecclesiocentrism to christo-pneumatic centrism i.e. church as an institution to sacrament of Christ, works of the Holy Spirit. From church as a society to church as a communion. Pre Vatican focus on the identity of the church. Vatican 11 and the Post Vatican focus on the mission of the church.
2 Origin - the church from Jesus Christ
Without the raising of Jesus from the dead Christian preaching and Christian faith is futile (1Cor 15, 14-20) more than that without the raising of Jesus fro m the dead the community of believers, the church is meaningless. Only the certainty that the crucified Christ lives on as risen Christ glorified by god gives us the solution to the riddle of Jesus as a person and makes the church possible and real.
2.1 Jesus the founder of the church?
Two opinions – Jewish and catholic
Jewish do not accept Jesus as the founder. Paul is the one who organized the church. Jesus proclaimed only the kingdom of god.
Catholic – a community of salvation was the eternal plan of the triune god. Incarnation is the realization of this plan. Jesus mission was to build up a community of salvation. Church is the outcome of Jesus mission. Theological understanding
Jesus was the founder of the church not like the founder of the congregation. Jesus did not define the boundaries but gave the elements. Church is not institutional but inspirational.
Spiritual understanding.
Congar contributed it. The founder gives life and inspiration to the community.
Founder life
Structure
Gradual growth of the structure and history, life is the primary thing.
Historical understanding
God wanted to save the people of god. God chose Israel as his people to share his divine life with them through different persons, it is also through different events, starts with the call of Abraham, covenant, exile etc. it is also through different stages. One of the characteristics of this ways is already but not yet or there is but not yet realized.
Relationship with Jesus and Israel.
Jesus wanted to continue the same process of the father. He did not want to establish a community that is not like Israel. Eg is the selection of the twelve representing the twelve tribes.
Christ and Church
God wanted to save all humanity so a community of salvation in Jesus Christ, the son of God. This community that is the church is the sacrament of Christ. So church is the sacrament of salvation. Actually Jesus proclaimed the establishment of the kingdom of god. Many responded to it. Church is the historical incarnation of Jesus.
2.1.2 Christ and the Kingdom of God.
Many argue that Jesus is not the founder of the church. Jesus in the gospels always preached the kingdom of god. The signs of this kingdom are
• Miracles and signs
• Forgiveness of sin – by god only
• Table fellowship – Jesus shared meal with the poor
• Parables Mt 13,1-48
• A call for conversion – a radical ‘metanoia’ (Mk 1,15)
• Beatitude.
Jesus himself is the kingdom of god. Jesus wished to found the kingdom of god but there came out the church. Jesus’ mission is continued by the church.
2.1.3 Church and the kingdom of God.
Church and the kingdom of God are not identical, but they are related. There are similarities and dissimilarities between them.
Similarities: Both of them have same nature:
1. Theological: Kingdom of God is the plan of God. Origin and the end of the kingdom is theological. The same is with the church too. Origin, nature and the end of the Church is theological, i.e., God cantered.
2. Christological: kingdom of God is Christ centered. Church is from Jesus Christ, in Christ, with Christ and for Christ.
3. Universal: the kingdom stands for all – for all ages. There is no restriction or limitation for the kingdom. Church also exists for all. Vatican II says that church is the universal sacrament of salvation. But is Church universal today? Church exists for all.
4. Soteriological: Purpose of kingdom: salvation of all – everyone should share the divine life. Church also aims at the salvation of all.
5. Religious: (Religare = to relate). The purpose of kingdom is to relate the humanity with God. Church also has the same mission.
6. Challenging: both are challenging. Radical conversion is a must to experience the kingdom of God. Say ‘no’ to sin and say ‘yes’ to good. The message of the Church also is to live up the gospel value.
7. Eschatological: kingdom is already and not yet.
The founding events and principles of both church and kingdom have similarities. (Christ is not the founder of the Church, but he just laid foundation for the Church.)
1. Incarnation: to establish a community of salvation is the purpose of the kingdom. The message of the incarnation is clear in the nature of the kingdom and of the Church.
2. Election of the twelve: A renewed community. Jesus entrusted the mission to the twelve officially. This is the founding event. The church came out from the life and mission of the twelve.
3. Primacy of Peter. Apostolic succession and primacy of Pope.
4. Church in kingdom parables: parables reveal the mysteries of the kingdom of God. Kingdom parables help to understand the mysteries of the Church too.
5. Sharing juridical authority: at the end Jesus shared his authority with the Apostles.
6. Institution of the Eucharist: To establish a permanent relationship with God and humanity.
7. Paschal mystery: Foundation of the church.
8. Giving of the Holy Spirit: spirit gives energy and it guides the Church.
Differences
Before Vatican II both were identified. So the membership in the church was necessary to attain salvation. According to Vatican II the end of salvation history is not the Church, but the kingdom. Church has a role in the realization of the kingdom. Church is the best instrument for the realization of the kingdom, because it is instituted by Christ.
LG 1, 5: Church is the sign and sacrament of the kingdom of God. Sign is the pointer to something. Church is the pointer to salvation. Sacrament is an efficacious sign. It contains what it means. Christ is the sacrament of God. That means God perfectly manifested God. But Church is the founding sacrament. Church becomes a foundation for the experience of the kingdom of God. It is not a perfect sacrament because of its sinfulness. Church is not the exclusive realization of the kingdom of God. The whole cosmos is the stage for the realization of the kingdom. (The ideal Church includes the whole cosmos. But the present Church is not the exclusive stage for the realization of the kingdom). Church can realize the kingdom 1. Not by its power, but by the power of Christ – through perfect obedience to Christ’s commandment. 2. Not by our institutional structures; but we need the community of faith and love. This is needed for the realization of the kingdom of God. 3. Realize kingdom not with a crusading mind, but with a crucified heart – suffering and sharing. 4. By proclaiming the kingdom by words and deeds 5. Actualize the word of God in liturgy and sacraments 6. Recognize the presence of kingdom and God’s presence outside the Church too.
Church as the Herald and the Servant of the kingdom of God: It shows the difference between Church and the kingdom. Church is not the kingdom; but Church exists only for the kingdom. Church has to proclaim the kingdom through words and deeds.
Proclamation is of three types: Kerygma (by word), Koinonia (by life) and Diakonia (by service). The church serves the kingdom in three ways:
1. By becoming a kenotic Church = self emptying
2. By becoming a serving Church = self giving completely to the others
3. By becoming a suffering Church = self sacrificing.
The Eucharist is the perfect realization of this service. The Eucharist is the best model for the Church to become the herald and servant of the kingdom. The end of the salvation history is not the Church, but the kingdom of God. Church is only a partial realization of the kingdom of God.
2.2 From community to mystery – church of the apostles
2.2.1 Church as a community
Church is the created image of the Trinitarian community. The purpose of Jesus Christ was to establish a community here on earth i.e. kingdom of god. He founded a small community of 12 apostles at first. After the resurrection and Pentecost the followers founded the first messianic community at Jerusalem. It was the church conceived in Calvary born on Easter and manifested on Pentecost.
Members; a limited group of enthusiastic Jews and disciples of Jesus. The community was lead by the twelve, peter as the leader and spokesman of the community. The members of the Jerusalem community went to different places and proclaimed Jesus message.
The church of Jerusalem: the mother church, it was constituted mainly by the disciples. Other members were the first converts from Judaism and Hellenism. The community was lead by peter and others later by the deacons. The members of Jerusalem gathered in the temple for feasts and in the homes for breaking of bread.
The church of Antioch: first community founded outside Palestine by Hellenistic Jewish Christians. Here the believers were called the Christians. Barabass was sent from Jerusalem to the community and Paul of tarsus joined later. They were the leaders. Later the leadership was taken by bishops, deacons etc. one among them was Ignatius of Antioch.
Church of Rome: founded around 40-42 by Jewish Christians Jerusalem. In 1554 AD there was a quarrel between Jews and Christians. Christians were expelled fro m Rome. Later in 61 AD Paul reached the Rome and found a community that had a relationship with Jerusalem community. But in 64-67 there was a persecution by Nero, thus Peter and Paul were martyred.
Characteristics of Christian communities
1. The origin: they originated as the fulfillment of prophetic promises. It also originated as the realization of Jesus’ mission. Also as the anticipation of the eschatological kingdom.
2. Community as organized: there was a move from charismatic nature to an organized nature. In the beginning the activities of the church was depending on the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Expected parousia. Later they realized that parousia is not happening. This forced them to organize the community. A tension between church from above and church from below or between the action of the spirit and the structure of the church.
3. Nature of worship: they used to go temple for prayers. The new members were initiated to the community through baptism. They gathered together on every first day of the week for the breaking of the bread. They celebrated the faith experience of the risen lord in the liturgical acclamations like Amen, Alleluia, Maranata etc.
4. The community life. Lead life of one heart and one soul (Acts 4, 32-34). The communities were the challenging communities. And ethical movem4nt was there. It did not hand a definitive doctrine, no solid organizational structure but had a communal destiny. Thus they were model communities.
5. Community’s mission. Members of the community continued to proclaim the good news. Also there were tensions because of the cultural and liturgical problems. The apostles faced this struggle by appointing seven deacons. They preached against the temple and Jewish authority and it created tension. Thus persecution is started. Stephen became the first martyr.
Why church h is called a communion of communities.
1. Because they were united in the same way as the risen lord. Had the hope of final community, same bond of charity, there spiritual and material sharing.
2. They had some missions. Apostles shared the mission of Christ with the local leaders. One body and different aim.
3. When one encounters the local church, he encounters the church of Jesus (acts 20,28), Ephesus as gods church. There is only one church, one lord, one spirit etc. but diversity of grace. So church is a communion of communities.
2.2.2 Church as mystery
Community is the visible reality of the church. It also indicates an invisible reality, something hidden within the nature of the church. This invisible reality is explained by the term mystery. St Paul uses it as ‘mysterion,’ the saving plan of god in creation and history. This nature of saving plan is partially hidden but gradually realized (Schillbeckx- already not yet).
This saving plan is fully manifested in Jesus Christ. This saving plan of Christ which is hidden and partially revealed is to be realized in the church today. Thus church is a mystery. Church as the body of Christ is the realization of the mystery. It is with and through the church the triune god realizes the mystery on the salvific plan of god. Thus we say church is the tangible sacrament of god’s mysterion. The means used to realize the saving plan is the koinonia on communion. There are various types of koininia.
1. Theocentric koinonia: communion of god with humanity. Ie triune god gives divine life to humanity.
2. anthropocentric : koinonia among the believers, generosity, giving life to others
3. Ecclesial koinonia: koinonia of the local churches with the universal church.
4. Spiritual communion: of the local leaders of bishops with Rome.
This koinonia is triune in nature. Church is the created image of trinity. The perfect realization of the triune koinonia is realized in the Eucharist.
2.2.3 Basic Christian Ecclesial Communities
(Refer the sheet given by Fr. Puthenveettil)
2.3 From Institution to Sacrament – Church of the Post-Apostolic period
Christ- kingdom
Apostles – community
Post apostles – institution
Church is a historical reality: church is not a myth because it exists in time and space. Its origin goes back to a historical event that is Christ event, and the response given to this Christ event.
Church is a historical reality in its nature and mission. Here the idea of the church is produced and reproduced in the course of history through rites and so on.
This historical reality is a unique reality because there is san encounter between the transhistorical and historical. Church becomes a medium to encounter god with the people and vice versa. This unique reality is expressed in church as an institution.
What is an institution? It has three functions.
• Institution is a group of people
• There will be a permanent authority
• The communication of this authority
2.3.1 Church as a Charismatic Institution
Why church is called an institution?
1. because it is called the community of believers
2. This institution is constituted upon the faith in the risen lord. This authority is communicated to Christ’s representatives. (Mt 28, 20). The speciality of exercising the authority is that it is used in the service to build up the community of salvation.
Where do we see the basic structure of this institution?
At first in the founding of the church. His message of the KG to create a group of believers of salvation. His mission was to proclaim the good news. He gave the save power to the disciple to do the same. The visible authority is seen in the founding events of the church. They are there is a shift from institution to institutionalism. It started with when Christianity became the religion of Rome. Thus clericalism was shifted to hierarchialism. The idea of community was changed to socio political organization of the church.
In the beginning church was a sign of service. Then it became a political organization. It also moved from service and domination. The church defined herself as a perfect society against the reformists. Vat 1 itself defined so. It has all the marks of true society. Christ gave its existence. His will determined the form of its existence and gave its constitution. Church is not part of or member of any other society. It is so perfect in itself because it is distinct from all other society. And it stands above all other societies. So church is defined to be a perfect society.
During enlightenment there was a desire t o go back to the source and origin of the early apostolic life. Church is not a sociological institution why? It has not only a sociological nature because it has a social structure.
Not only sociological mission it has its own social responsibility. But its nature and mission should not be identified with its institution. In fact church exists for true sociological purpose.
Church is not a democratic society.
Church is also charismatic in nature. It is said so because of the Trinitarian foundation i.e. it is created in the image of the trinity. Triune god is the founder of the church.
Because of its Christological nature church is called to continue the life and mission of Christ. Church is the sacrament of Christ.
Pneumatological presence. Holy Spirit is actively present in the community by transforming church into the kingdom of god.
Spiritual governance. Though the church is governed by the laws of sociology it is spiritually governed by the action of the HS.
Because of the eschatological mission. Church is the sign of salvation. Church is both institution and charismatic. Church is a special historical reality because both are from Christ and HS. Both elements are necessary to fulfill its mission here of earth. But charismatic nature has priority over institutional nature.
How to explain these both expressions?
Vat 11 combined it as the sacrament i.e. church as a sacrament, invisible sign. Through natural revelation and supernatural revelation god reveals his sacraments. Both creation and redemption are sacramental. Jesus is the primordial sacrament of the father i.e. permanent sacrament of father.
Why Jesus is primordial?
• In Jesus the love of god is bodily present (Col 2,9)
• Jesus came to reveal fathers love to humanity. This is seen in his public life.
• Jesus is the visible and audible sign to encounter god.
• Jesus is the historical manifestation of the transhistorical logos. He is the efficacious sign of salvation. This salvation is achieved through his death and resurrection. So he is the perfect revelation of the father. He is the primordial sacrament because he is the perfect mediator.
Mediatorship in two ways.
• Descending mediation
• Ascending mediation.
2.3.2 Church as a sacrament of Christ. How?
1. By being an efficacious and visible sign of Christ. This redemption must be concretely realized in the celebration of the Eucharist of the daily life.
2. By actualizing Jesus’ mediation.
Church has two kinds of mission.
• Descending mission – church is the world to reveal the liberating love of god to all. This liberating love must be presented through the prophetic, priestly and kingly functions.
The pre Vatican documents always put the priestly function first but Vatican 11 put the prophetic function.
• Ascending mission – church has to bring all mankind to a life of faith. Church has to lead the people to worship true god. Here the church is also called to establish the kingdom of god.
3. By its historical manifestation. First manifest the spirit of Christ that the spirit of Christ is always alive in the community (acts 2, 33). Second, historically manifest the love of Christ. It should not be by commanding or preaching or by adding love to the structure laws etc. But manifest the love of Christ by our life. Jesus manifested it by his death. So church has to die for the poor and the oppressed.
4. Seven sacraments concretize the historical manifestation of Christ. In it we have the immediate access to salvation, on to the spirit of Christ. Church is the sacrament of the Holy Spirit. Thus church is called the spouse of the Holy Spirit.
What the church has to do to be the sacrament of Christ?
1. It should be a kenotic church i.e. self emptying church. (Mt 5, 3: Lk 4, 18). Church of the poor is clear in the early Christian communities. Now there are a lot of charitable institutions. Therefore now church is for the poor. That is a preferential option for the poor. (LG 8; 42, PO20, GS72).
2. It has to become a servant church. Jesus became a servant to the fellow beings by submitting his will to the father. He showed perfect obedience and become perfect sacrifice through death. Today church is also called to be a servant. First of all service at the world, not by becoming a slave of the world but by being an instrument of peace and justice. Sometimes this service is through a prophetic criticism.
3. By becoming a suffering church. Jesus saw suffering as the means to establish the KG and to redeem the human begins. This suffering took him to the cross. This church has to share in this suffering of Christ.
4. Ecumenical church. Christ is the greatest unifier. He brings the unity of the one god here on earth.
2.3.3. Church is the universal sacrament of salvation.
God had a salvific plan. And Christ came to fulfill this plan through his death and resurrection. Thus Christ is the sacrament of salvation. Now church has to continue the salvific plan of Christ by the early four points i.e. kenotic suffering etc. The members of the church have to experience Christ that church has to become the life, mission and means of salvation. In the history salvation was limited to the church alone.
Cyprian: baptism is necessary to attain salvation. No salvation outside the church.
Justin: activity of the logos is wider than the church. He was more liberal.
Augustine: church alone is the body of Christ. Holy Spirit does not vivify anyone outside the church. Hence those who are outside the church do not have the Holy Spirit.
4th Lateran council: there is one universal church of the faithful outside which no one is saved.
St. Thomas Aquinas: no salvation outside the church.
Boniface 8th: for salvation it is absolutely necessary that every human creature is subjected to the roman pontiff.
Council of Florence: the holy catholic church professes and preaches that no one remaining outside the church not only pagans but also Jews can become partakers of eternal life.
Vat 1: there are people who are ignorant of Christ and church. They should not be condemned. Because Christ’s salvation is for all. At least one should have the baptism of desire. (LG16, 14 SC5 AG1 GS45-48)
Some Christian perception salvation is universal and Trinitarian. Salvation is from god and it is for all.
Is salvation ecclesial? – Church is in god through Christ. Salvation is only possible through Christ.
Whether church is necessary for salvation?
1. Salvation intra ecclesial: God’s salvation in Christ is fully experienced in the church because it is the specific community of the saved. Christ’s himself instituted this saving community. This saving experience is fully manifested in the Eucharist today. Thus church is called medium of salvation. Here we have to be inside the church to be saved.
2. Salvation is extra ecclesial: for them Gods salvation is for all. God’s salvation is not the monopoly of the church. For them the KG is important. People of peace and harmony are people of salvation or KG. They have implicit expression of faith in Jesus.
3. Salvation is tota ecclesia : church is to be sign of salvation for all. Because it is a sign instituted for all. It is also instrument of salvation. Church is the primordial sign of salvation i.e. church receive salvation from the triune god.
3. Nature – the church in Jesus Christ.
3.1 From the father as the people of god
3.1.1 Salvific history of the people of God
It stresses the relationship between Church and God. God created everyone in his image and likeness, because God wanted to have his own people to communicate his love. The purpose of the creation of man is to form a people of God. But there came the fall – the people of God were separated from God. The original purpose of God was broken by the fall of Adam. Then comes the Old Testament. In order to build up the people of God, God again takes initiative. He interfered in the history. Through the people of Israel God wanted to save the whole humanity. Israel literally means God Reigns. This also implies the membership of a nation and of a religion. It is a sacred name of those who are chosen by God. Israel indicates a close relation between God and the people of Israel. Gen 12, 2 – 3: to create a new people of God through Israel – a people chosen by God and for God and to live in God.
Ex 6, 6 – 7: the title ‘people of God’ is well expressed here. By calling Abraham God started creating a new people of God. There was a covenantal relationship between God and Israel. The only demand to the Israel was ‘to be always faithful to the covenant’. But they often failed in remaining faithful to the covenant. Prophets came to remind them to become faithful to the covenant with Yahweh. Gradually the ‘people of God’ concept expanded with the New Testament. All humanity have to be people of God. By choosing the people of Israel God aimed extending salvation to all. But they did not succeed much. But in the New Testament the kingdom extended even to the gentiles. There is an intimate connection between new Israel and Old Israel.
1Pet 2, 9 – 10: People of God Reference is found here.
1Thess 1, 4: God chose the people. The act of choosing is done in the New Testament also. The first people chosen by Jesus are from the members of Israel. Theologically both people have same identity – called by God and having the same end.
New Testament is the renewed people of God. New people of God are not by the law of the flesh. They are the people of God by faith in Christ. Christ becomes the core of the people of God.
The conditions for membership in the new people of God:
1. One has to profess faith in Christ. 2. There must be a radical conversion (Metanoia) through baptism. 3. Prayer life – a religious Koinonia. 4. Social Koinonia – sharing 5. Meal aspect – Eucharistic communion – coming together to celebrate the Eucharist. 6. the aim of the new people of God is the kingdom of God. 7. New relationship.
The people of God in the New Testament is mentioned only once (1Pet 1, 10). But this idea is seen many times in Paul using different images and concepts.
There is both connection and difference with regard to the Old Testament people of God and the New Testament people of God. There is a progress in it.
With the fall of Jerusalem in 66 – 70 AD, the concept of people of God was divided into Christians and Jews. There was a conflict between Jewish Christians and the gentile Christians. This also caused the fall of Jerusalem. The centre of the Church was shifted to Rome. With the Edict of Milan the separation intensified. Church adopted a juridical system and became a state religion. A hierarchy came up in the Church due to the juridical structure. People of God were divided into clergy and laity.
During the age of monasticism there was a more awareness of the role of the laity. Luther came up with the idea of the people of God – there is only one people of God, avoiding the dualism of clergy and laity. Reformation aimed at eradicating this dualism.
Later in Catholic Action (a movement which promoted the sharing of responsibilities of priests and laity) laity was asked to participate in the activities of the clergy.
Before Vatican II we had two types of Ecclesiology: 1. Text book Ecclesiology, which stressed the institutional dimension 2. Progressive Ecclesiology, which stressed the people of God dimension of the Church. This was held by the reformers. Both these types influenced Vatican II.
3.1.2 People of God in Vatican II:
The council taught that
1. All are created to be the people of God. 2. All Catholics are people of God. There is no division between clergy and laity. 3. All other Christians are called to be the people of God. 4. All non Christians also aim at becoming the people of God.
Vatican II gives more importance to the mission of the Church rather than the identity of the individual (such as who is a priest, who is a lay person etc.). Laity also has an important role in the Church. Since Church has a sacramental role Church has to take a special responsibility to create the kingdom of God.
From the concept of the people of God Congar developed a Total Ecclesiology. According to this all are equal. We have to give preference to communion than participation. The preference is for mission than identity. The greatest one is the one who does his mission well. Lay people also are full members of the Church.
Popular Church of liberation theologians: The importance of hierarchy is negated. All are equal. Too much emphasis is given on equality of the faithful. Church is of the people. People of God concept was misunderstood to an extent. Synod of 1985 was convened to discuss this problem. It said that we need not one image (people of God) of Church only, but also the image of Church as the body of Christ. The synod tried to bring back the hierarchical structure of the Church.
Synod of 1987 stressed the importance of the laity.
Synod of 1990 emphasized the importance of both clergy and laity. Priests and laity together are called the people of God.
Evaluating the image of the People of God
Positive Elements
1. The continuity: People of God image is continuing from the Old Testament to the New Testament. They have same mission and nature.
2. This is more God centered. A good relationship with God. There is a special awareness of this.
3. People centered. This image can unite clergy and laity.
4. Equality over diversity. Equality in fulfilling mission.
5. A better relationship. This image helps us to have a better relationship – between laity and clergy, between universal Church and the local Church. This is also good for ecumenism and dialogue.
Negative Elements:
1. Tendency of Pluralism. We avoid the image of God. We need other images also to understand the nature.
2. Pluralistic Tendency: Due to over emphasis of priesthood of clergy.
3. Clericalisation of the Laity: Anybody can be the minister of even sacraments according to this.
We have to compliment the image of people of God with other images, so that we can have a better understanding.
3.1.3 The church and the Jews: One people of God
There is a spiritual link between Jews and Christians: Those who believe in Jesus are the sons of Abraham. The Jews were the medium to get the Old Testament revelation. They have an important role to convey the revelation from the Old Testament to the New Testament. Old Testament is a preparation to the New Testament. Jews must be respected because they are the first privileged group. The physical body of Jesus came from Jewish background. His first disciples are also Jews. So Jews and Christians should have a respect to each other, because we have a common patrimony.
3.2 From the incarnate Son as the Body of Christ
This shows Church’s relation to Christ. It also shows the relationship among the Christians. It is St. Paul who used this image – Christ as the body of Christ. In the Old Testament we do not see any such reference.
Body has two meanings. 1. A kind of organization (General body; body of soldiers etc.) 2. A living organism (human body, animal body).
Body of Christ: 1. Historical body of Jesus
2. Risen body of Jesus
3. Sacramental body of Jesus (Eucharistic body)
4. Mystical body of Christ (Ecclesial body)
Only a few people had access to the historical body because it was limited y time and space. All people have access to the risen body of Jesus. Eucharistic body has a more personal dimension. Ecclesial body has a communitarian dimension.
3.2.1 Biblical concept of the body of christ
The Church originated shares, experience and lives in the body of Christ. 1Cor 1, Rom, Eph, Col etc. speak of Church as the body of Christ.
1Cor 1, 16: the first usage of Church as the body of Christ. Division in the Church: in order to emphasis the need of unity St. Paul uses this image.
St. John also uses this image indirectly: as ‘wine and branches.’
Acts 9, 4: ‘Why do you persecute me?’ this also is an indirect reference to Church as the body of Christ.
The image of the body of Christ was later developed by St. Augustine in 1947 Pope Pius X’s encyclical Mediator Dei presents Church as the body of Christ. LG also calls Church the body.
Paul uses ‘body’ in Jewish and Greek background. Jews understood body as a living person – having relationship with others or who is open to others. In Greek sense body is a living organism – having internal or organic relationship within the members of the body. Paul uses both these meanings to explain the body. Jewish meaning is used to emphasis the relationship between Christ and the Church. The Greek meaning is used to refer to the relationship among the members. (1Cor 12). All members are united in one body and all of us are equal. All receives life from the head (Christ). We share the life of the risen Lord through baptism and Eucharist.
3.2.2 Theological Understanding of the Body of Christ (based on Paul)
1. Personal Communion with Christ: This is an incorporation into Christ. We are sharing the life of the risen Lord. Life in Christ is a gradual process of incorporation – a Christification. We have to make communion with Christ because he is the head of the body. (Col 1, 18; Eph 1, 22; 5, 23). Each Christian is invited to have a communion with Christ the head, from when the Church originated. Church and Christ are intimately related. We take life from the head. He is the source of eternal life. He is the basis of our unity.
How to have a relationship with this body. 1. By faith: An explicit expression of faith is needed. 2. Through baptism 3. Through Eucharist: Participation in the Eucharist to have a growth in this communion.
From personal incorporation to communitarian incorporation: we have an ecclesial union based on union with Christ. It is not sociological or organizational union, but an organic unity – body of Christ. Christian community is the body of Christ. They are one body, not separated bodies. (1 Cor 12, 27; Rom 4, 12). All the members have different gifts and charisms – they are united in Christ. All will have to function fro the growth of the one body: live in Koinonia. Serve the building up of the Church. Sharing for the building up of the Church. The pain of one part of the body should affect me too.
Church as the Mystical Body of Christ
Paul had an understanding of the mystical body; but he never explicitly speaks of the mystical body. Till the Middle Ages the body of Christ was understood as the historical body, the Eucharistic body or the mystical body and the Ecclesial body. From the middle ages there came up a shift. The concept of mystical body was shifted to ecclesial body. Pan Christianism taught that Christ is the extension of the physical body of Christ. In this situation the mystical body was applied to the Church. The reformers considered the Church as a hierarchical body: an organizational body. This also compelled to uphold Church as the mystical body. There is both a divine and human dimension in the church. Mystical body implies both divine and human (Mystical = divine; body = divine even though it cannot be divided).
Bellarmin is the one who first identified the ecclesial body with the mystical body, in the context of reformation. Reformers believed only in invisible Church. Church based on faith alone. They identified this invisible Church with the mystical body. This mystical body is more or less like the physical body of Christ. This invisible Church (of faith alone) alone will be saved.
It is in this background we can better understand the Catholic understanding of Church as the mystical body. When reformers said that there is only invisible Church (mystical body) the counter reformers said that Church is the visible hierarchical society. It is not purely invisible, nor like a physical body, it is deeper.
3.2.3 Magisterial teachings of the mystical body of christ
Pope Pius XII wants to explain the reality of the Church as the mystical body. He incorporated two ideas: 1. Interior reality of grace, 2. Role of the Holy Spirit (in his Mystici Corporis).
In his Mystici Corporis he says 1. Church is a body: hierarchically structured and it is a society. 2. it is not a simple body, it is the body of Christ. Because Church originated form Christ. Christ is the head of the Church; the source of life; unity of other members. Church is a sustained an grown through the sacraments. 3. Christ is the Saviour of the Church.
Human and divine dimensions are combined in the Church. Human = structure etc. Divine = it is Trinitarian.
Church is the Mystical body of chirst. This is to be distinguished from other bodies. It is not purely a natural body. It is not a moral body (not the union of ideals or ideas). It combines both internal and external of Christ. It is natural, moral, spiritual etc. it combines both human and divine dimensions of Christ. The concept ‘mystical’ combines all these realities of the Church. The mywstical union with Christ is through grace. Mystical union among Christians is through charity.
Pope then says that Church as the mystical body of Christ is perfectly manifested in the Roman Catholic Church. No other Churches or communities are identified with the mystical body of Christ. An explicit membership in the Roman Catholic Church is a must to be saved. It is a rigid position. The encyclical gives the principles of the membership. There are actual members and potential members. Actual members or real members have to fulfill three conditions: 1. Unity of faith: Profession of faith in Christ. 2. Valid baptism 3. Hierarchical communion with the Pope. When these conditions are fulfilled we become actual members of the Church. (Vatican II shifted these conditions: The possession of the Holy Spirit also was considered as a condition. According to the former even a sinful catholic can be the member of the mystical body of Christ, but to any non catholic, because they have no communion with the Pope.)
The potential members: All non Catholics and all those who possess grace. These conditions are more strict and juridical.
Vatican II (LG 7): Church as the mystical body of Christ. Vatican considered the understanding of Pope Pius XII as rigid and juridical. Vatican II second rejected the identification of the Roman Catholic Church and the mystical body. Instead of membership incorporation was given importance. (It is more a theological understanding rather than a juridical one). Christ builds up this body and shares life to this body through sacraments. Holy Spirit is the soul of this body of Christ. The intimate relationship between Christ and the Church is the central point of LG 7. Church is founded by Christ. He is the head of this Church. The union of the members to the head is by sharing divine live. Sharing 1. By baptism through which everybody is incorporated into the body of Christ. 2. through Eucharist: building up the Church. In baptism it is individual incorporation. In the Eucharist it is communitarian incorporation.
The unique Church of Christ with Peter as the visible head “subsists in” (LG 8) in the Catholic Church. Most of the elements are found in the Catholic Church. “subsists in” also indicates that other Churches and communities are also in different degree the mystical body of Christ.
The conditions to be the member of the mystical body of Christ are possession of the Holy Spirit, baptism (public expression of one’s faith) and hierarchical communion. The incorporation to the body of Christ can be 1. Perfect- when all three conditions are fulfilled 2. Imperfect – when any of these conditions are not fulfilled. These conditions are I view of ecumenism and these are given explicitly in UR. So they are more in view of Ecumenism. This also gives possibility of inter religious dialogue.
Incorporation
1. Organic incorporation: Everyone who is animated by the Holy Spirit is incorporated into the body. This animation by Spirit is manifested today in the reception of baptism. This is to stress the unity of the members. The people of the Old Testament, having animated by the Spirit are members of the mystical body of Christ. It also includes all those who are in the purgatory and the blessed ones in the heaven. Organic incorporation is more of charismatic nature.
2. Juridical incorporation: it is more institutional or hierarchical.
3. Participatory incorporation: it is the view of Vatican II. It combines both charismatic and institutional dimensions. A valid baptism is a basic requirement to incorporation into the body of Christ. The incorporation becomes full with the acceptance of the Papal office.
Organic incorporation has similarity with the views of Thomas Aquinas. Juridical incorporation is of Pope Pius XII. Participatory incorporation is of Vatican II.
Evaluation
There are positive and negative implications of the Church as the body of Christ. Positive: 1. unity of all the members in difference – all are one body of Christ, but different members. 2. All the members are to be active and members must respect each other. 3. Role of the Holy Spirit: there is only one Spirit and everyone is animated by the same Spirit – it leads to unity and growth. 4. It is more Christological, based on incarnation theology. 5. Mission of the members is emphasized rather than their identity. 6. it speaks about hierarchy. 1 Cor 12, 27 Different types of ministries 7. This image also speaks of life in the Church – having an intimate union with Christ. 8. it speaks about communion of the Church.
Negative: 1. the Christological dimension – it is understood in an organic sense. It is good to explain the relationship between Christ and Christians and among Christians. But it is a block to ecumenism i.e., it says there is only one mystical body and that is Roman Catholic Church. It is a block to the inter religious dialogue too. The people of God image is much broader. 2. This image emphasizes hierarchy mere as an institution. But Church is a charismatic institution. 3. Because of the emphasis on hierarchy there is the passivity of the laity. 4. The role of the Holy Spirit is not well explained. 5. More organic relationship to the body of Christ is emphasized.
3.3 From the holy spirit as the creation of the spirit.
3.3.1 The Holy Spirit and the church: bible and tradition.
In the OT
Holy Spirit was present in the act of creation. Spirit was active in the constitution of the people of Israel and also in the covenant.
In the NT
In the life and mission of Jesus – at birth, at baptism, at preaching, at sacrifice, at resurrection.
Spirit in the ecclesial community.
Here spirit is understood as a creator starting with the Pentecost.
Church and the spirit – Eph 2, 17-22 (the whole universal church is related to spirit) I cor 3,16. Particular churches are related to and created by the Holy Spirit. I Peter 2, 5 each baptized person is created by the Holy Spirit.
In the tradition (church and spirit)
• fathers show different terms to show the relationships
christification, divinization,spiritualization, trinitification all these show dynamic nature of the spirit.
• Fathers also use the word ‘epiclesis’ to explain the invocation of the Holy Spirit in the liturgy.
• The early catholic creed reads like: I believe in the Holy Spirit and the holy Catholic Church.
• Iranaevus refers explicitly to spirit ‘where the church is there is the spirit of god and where the spirit of god is found there is the church and all gods’ graces’.
• St. Augustine sees Holy Spirit as the soul of the body of Christ.
How spirit is related to church according to Vat 11.
HS is spoken of as the sanctifier, guide, unifier, vivifier.
Post conciliar theologians and the HS.
They developed a pneumatological ecclesiology. It is on the basis of the John Paul 11’s document ‘dominicum et vivificatum’.
3.3.2 The Holy Spirit and the church – theological reflection.
Its theological insights are
Identity – creation of the spirit.
Mission – church is charismatic in nature.
Between church and the spirit – they are not identified and opposed rather church is the sacrament of the spirit on the epiphany of the spirit. The spirit precedes the church i.e. spirit exists even before the church.
How spirit builds up the spirit.
• Through the word, through the written, spoken and heard word. Word of god becomes then a sacrament through which we encounter god.
• Spirit acts through liturgy. Through epiclesis the liturgical actions become the actions of the risen Christ. Through all the sacraments spirit sanctifies and transforms each believer.
• Through charity. Spirit enables us to love our neighbor.
3.3.3 The church is charismatic.
Charisms: different charisms are given to us. These can be given permanently for the fulfillment of the ministries. They are given temporally to fulfill a specific mission.
Charisms positively are the free gifts of god and given for the building up of true church. Negatively charisms are not privileges deserved to some members but given to all members.
Charisms are not extra ordinary because they are given in ordinary way, ordinary life to build up the church. They are not uniformed not fixed, but varieties of charisms are given to different persons in different degrees.
ICor 12, 2-14 speaks of different charisms. Rom 12,6ff, Eph 4,11ff, ICor7, 17ff.
Mission to the twelve is the special charisms.
Dimensions – the church of Jesus Christ.
4. Dimensions – the church of JesusChrist There are four qualities of the Church. They reflect the essence of the Church, helps us to understand Church in a better way. They also differentiate Church from other societies. They are the essential qualities of the Church. Church cannot exist without these qualities.
4.1 CHURCH IS ONE - Ecumenism
Jesus Christ only found one church. Then why there are so many churches? Every church claims that they have their origin from Christ. (There are about 30000 churches are there.) . Do these churches have real communion. Is this communion only spiritual or visible? Is it possible to have such a communion?
“Unity’ in Bible: The unity in triune God- immanent trinity. Unity is perfectly seen. Economic trinity- multiplicity is seen- three act specifically. The communication of God is through multiplicity. Oneness is manifested in the relationship between man and God- through different acts. Such as creation, election and liberation. The purpose of this communication is to be create one people of God.
4.1.1 Unity of Christ’s church.
In the New Testament: Jesus Christ is the one mediator who united God and humanity- one person two natures. It is oneness is manifested through two natures.
He is one with the Father, not only in substance, but also in love. In the son there is a unity between human and divine natures. This is more manifested in the unity in his life and mission. There is no dichotomy in his life.
He is also a perfect mediator between God and man. The perfect unity in triune God is perfectly communicated through the person of Jesus Christ. He is the one who can lead the humanity to unity.
Jesus had only one mission- the establishment of the kingdom of God. The ultimate object of this mission is one community, to bring everyone under the same flock.
Church in the New Testament: The term ‘ecclesia’ is used indifferent sense – for the universal Church, local Church, a small community gathered in a family etc. This means that all these belong to the one Church. 1 Cor 1, 10- 13: Division in the Church: Paul says Christ is the only foundation of the Church. 1 Cor 12: There is only one Spirit though there are different gifts. The one Spirit is the source and inspiration of the Church. Gal 3, 27 – 28: all are one in Christ. There is no question of difference in sex, race etc. Rom 12, 3 – 8: One body having different functions: This also indicates that we are called to be one Church. Acts 2, 42: Life of the early Christians: One in life and worship – a spiritual and social koinonia. Eph 4, l1 – 6: We are one body and one spirit. We have only one law, one faith and one baptism.
The early Christian community is the model of this unity of the Church. There are three levels of unity. 1. Unity of Faith: Faith in Jesus Christ. 2. Unity of worship: There was only one baptism and Eucharist. 3. Unity in leadership: The Spirit leads the Church through different persons; there is only one leadership.
The division in faith is heresy. It is the denial of a dogma. Dogma is a part of revelation and hence it cannot be reformulated. The content of the dogma remains the same. Heresy is also a false interpretation believed as truth. In the past most of the heresies were Christological. Now they are more ecclesiological. Theologians say that heresies are not completely wrong; they help the Church to deepen our understanding of the dogma.
The division in faith leads to division in worship and leadership, which is called schism. (Schism means separation). Papacy is the visible leadership of the Church. We can deny the papal authority directly or indirectly. If it is direct then a separation takes place. Also we can deny the papal authority by our actions.
4.1.2 Divisions in the Church
Divisions are due to faith, worship and leadership. Church has to realise the triune communion in the world. So separation in the Church is a scandal to the world.
Catholics say that the unity must be in both levels: in visible and in invisible levels. As Christ and the Father are one, so in the Church also there is an invisible unity. Besides, unity in worship (visible unity) also is needed. The invisible unity is to be manifested in the visible level too. Visible unity means the acceptance of Papacy. The Orthodox stresses on the spiritual union. Be united in love and fellowship. But they do not stress on diversity. The Protestants unity means unity in invisible level only. There can be diversity in visible level.
4.1.3 Restoration of Christian Unity: Ecumenism
Unity does not mean uniformity. We can have different stresses. But the content must be one ad the same.
Levels of Unity: Historically we have to accept Petrine ministry. Theologically also it is said that papacy is divine will, originated from Christ. Those who oppose this say that it is only human in origin. The authority is given to all disciples according to them. Canonically pope has the supreme power. But it is exercised collegially with the Bishops.
Unity in Ecclesiastical level: Unity in the Church.
Ecumenical Unity: Unity with other churches. It has three levels: A. Ecumenism to Rome: by other (Protestant churches), B. Ecumenism in Rome (which began with Vatican II), C. Ecumenism form Rome – a positive attitude towards to WCC etc.
Eschatological Unity.
4.2 CHURCH IS HOLY - Renewal
In Hebrew the term ‘katad’ means to separate. Real holiness means ‘separation from sin’ and separated for God (consecration). (Sin of commission and omission).
Who is a saint or holy person? He is the one who makes goodness attractive. Holiness is perfectly seen in God. Holiness derives from ‘unity’, oneness. Sin- lack of love= selfishness. In triune God there is no selfishness. There is perfect sharing of love or complete self gift. The love in triune God- love within the triune God = immanent; this love also extended love without. –Love of triune God shown to the humanity – through natural and supernatural revelations. Christ is the one who revealed this communion of the triune God.
God is holy (Ex. 19, 5-6). God wants to extend this to the people. That is why he chose them. Christ is the real manifestation of the holiness of God – perfection of holiness= in the perfect self gift to God in obedience and to humanity in service. So Jesus is totally sinless. There is real love in Jesus, to God and humanity. Jesus is the new Adam who related humanity to God in love through his sinless life.
Jesus is the perfection of holiness. He is sinless. He is separated from selfishness and he could give himself completely to God in obedience and love and also to humanity. He could share all what he has and even himself. The old Adam led humanity to sin through disobedience. The new Adam liberated us from sin and enabled us to love God and humanity. He is the manifestation of holiness. He is also the source of holiness, in and through Jesus God can make the whole humanity holy. The best means to experience his holiness is the Eucharist; the Eucharistic life. Basing on this we can say that church is holy.
4.2.1 Holiness of Christ’s church
Church is holy because it originates from the Triune God, who is perfectly holy. By the very origin church is called to be holy. Church is the creation of the Holy Spirit.
Objectively speaking church is holy. But subjectively it is a pilgrim church. All Christians are called to holiness. We have not yet became fully holy, both sinfulness and holiness are there in the church because it ha s both human and divine dimensions.
Pre Vat –holiness is more personal rather communitarian. But the present is different. Communitarian aspect is emphasized. All are called to holiness.
Pre Vatican – for the ordinary people the means to holiness is the observance of the commandments. For the extra ordinary people the means to attain holiness sis the evangelical counsels- poverty, chastity and obedience. Observance of them is the means to holiness. But vat II – through baptism all people are called to holiness. There is only one holiness and one way to holiness – charity: Love of God and of neighbour
Church is called ‘communion of saints’ because it is sacrament of Christ, because it is the sacrament of Christ. All have the ability to become holy. Every member is called to holiness. Church is the temple of Holy Spirit. Through incarnation Christ manifested that the whole world can be sanctified. Now the holy spirit constantly renews and sanctifies the whole world with his gifts and charisms.
Reception of the sacraments is a means of sanctification. Listen to the word of God and do works of charity for renewal. Vat II invites us to become holy and also reminds us of our sinfulness.
4.2.2 A Holy Sinful Church
Sinfulness – within the church – of the members, leaders, in the ministry etc. outside the church in our attitude, in our lack of commitment to justice etc.
A constant renewal of church is needed. The holiness reveals the real nature of the church. The sinfulness hinders the true nature of the church.
4.2.3 Renewal and Reform of the Church
Church is a pilgrim church. It is not fully holy; but in the process of becoming fully holy. It needs a constant conversion. Conversion of elimination of selfishness.
Signs of renewal : simplicity of renewal , commitment of life, self emptying life, persecution and martyrdom.
4.3 CHURCH IS CATHOLIC - Mission
Kathlicos = oriented to the whole, open to the all.
The term Catholic is used by the fathers. It is Ignatius of Antioch who is used this term for the first time. Where ever there is Jesus Christ, there is the “Catholic church”. Ignatius.
Catholic has different understanding:
1.) Catholic means authentic; church is Catholic because it is truly founded by Jesus Christ.
2.) Catholic means universal: church has perfect relation to God; it originated from triune God. Church also has a horizontal relation also.- with the local churches. A church that is oriented to the whole humanity.
3.) Catholic is used as opposed to their heretical and sectarian communities.
4.) Catholicity means communion with all the churches – both sacramental and hierarchical communion- communion with the bishop of Rome also is important to become a Catholic.
5.) Catholic means fullness – church is Catholic because it teaches the fullness of doctrine. Church extends salvation to all. Church is Catholic because it possesses all virtues.
Catholic means ‘that which exists for the whole’ or that exists for all; which exists every where and always.
Church is to be Catholic spatially too. That is why we do missionary activities .church has to spread all over the world. Temporal catholicity also is important = church has to exist for all times.
Church extends salvation to all; it enables all people to have a perfect communion with God.
Theological basis of the catholicity of the church
Salvation history is a mixture of particularities of persons and universality of mission (salvation). The mission and universality is to extend the love of God to whole humanity.
Dimensions of catholicity
1) Catholicity from above. It is something supernatural. It is gift to humanity. It is something transcendental in its nature. But in history the catholicity is manifested through particularities and particular persons and events. But through these particularities God aims at universality. Incarnation is the perfection of particularity and universality.
2) Catholicity from below: When God extends his love the whole humanity has to respond to God. Church as the people of God, body of Christ and temple of the Holy Spirit is the best instrument to help the people to experience the catholicity of God’s love.
3) Catholicity in breadth: We have to extend the universality of the love of God in a geographical sense. Here comes the relevance of missionary work.
4) Catholicity is eschatological: Catholicity is fully realised in the realisation of the kingdom of God. We are still in the way to that.
Means of Catholicity
1. Communion with God in Christ: Here we realise that our ministry is for all; we will not confine our ministry to a few people.
2. Communion with the Church: Local Church must have a communion with the universal Church among the local Church. The local Church is a liberated and liberating community.
3. Communion with non Catholic Churches = Ecumenism. Working together would intensify the catholicity of the Church.
4. Missionary Activity: The sacramental life enables people to attain catholicity. It enables us to extend the love of Christ to all.
Institutional structure is another level of missionary activities. Charitable works through the institutions to all people and thus the catholicity also is expanded. A special communion with the poor and the oppressed is a must now. People of God are oriented to the whole humanity - to improve all.
Catholicity of the Church is not understood as universal organisation.
4.4 CHURCH IS APOSTOLIC - Ministry
Apostolic means “Like Apostles”. The mission of the Church is the mission of the Apostles. Church originated form the Apostles – from the Apostolic experience. The life of the Church is similar to the life of the Apostles. Church is faithful to the Apostolic experience in her teaching. Church has the succession of power from the apostles.
Apostle: According to the Acts an apostle must be a witness to the resurrection, must be accompanying Jesus during his ministry. With regard to a later Christian these conditions cannot be fulfilled. So this is very narrow. According to St. Paul an Apostle must have seen the Lord. He must have received a commission form the Lord. His mission is to be confirmed by signs and wonders (2 Cor 12, 12). These conditions are much broader. According to this it is possible even today. According to this we can say that an apostle is the one who is sent by God for a specific mission.
Jesus Christ is an Apostle
Christ has witnessed the Father. He has received a specific mission from the Father. His mission is confirmed by signs and wonders. Jesus Christ is the perfect apostle. His apostolicity is perfect. His mission also indicates the perfection of his apostolicity. He communicated the mysteries of God to man. His mission was perfectly confirmed by signs especially be his death and resurrection. With regard to the other apostles the wonders and signs are extrinsic (something outside the person). But in Jesus this is intrinsic (the very person himself is the sign). In this sense he is the perfect priest too – the perfect mediator.
Connection between Jesus and the Apostles
Jesus called the apostles ‘to be with him’ or ‘to see him.’ They were given a mission that is uniquely related to the kingdom of God. They were sent out with this mission. He set an apostolic college of the twelve. He trained them in a specific way. Peter was appointed the head of this apostolic college. In the second part the apostles were sent out by the Lord for a specific mission.
Church is Apostolic
Church has an Apostolic Foundation. Church is an apostolic community; it has its origin and continuation from the apostles. There was the direct link with the apostles’ community. The church also has apostolic tradition – the teachings of the apostles are continued in the Church. The apostolic succession is there in the Church. The power communicated to the apostles is handed down to the successors.
There is a difference between pre and post Vatican II. In the pre Vatican period the hierarchy is considered to be apostolic, i.e., there is a direct link with the apostles. With Vatican II the whole Church is considered to be apostolic. Apostolic office is only a sign. The essence of the Church is apostolic. The whole Church is sent out. The full participation in the mission of the Church begins with baptism. Formerly it was thought that it is through Ordination. Through baptism all invariably participate in the ministry of Jesus. So all have the responsibility of continuing the ministry. So lay people also have to be integrated into the mission of the Church. The difference is only in office, but not in essence.
4.4.2 Various ministries in the church
God in the history intervened through different people, through prophets, priests and kings. This three fold ministry is very evident in the Old Testament, Christ event and in the ecclesial life today. Today we have to fulfill our mission through these ministries. Christ is the perfection of these ministries. In him all these ministries are seen. So he is the perfect mediator and perfection of revelation. He is the perfect prophet because all the Old Testament Prophesies were fulfilled in him. Besides Old Testament prophets spoke for Christ. Jesus is both the proclaimer and the proclaimed. Word and deed are completely united in him. He is the perfect king or leader. His is eternal kingdom. His power was for service. He leads the people through the way which is he himself. The end also is he himself. He is a perfect king because he serves both God and man. I the Old Testament priests offered sacrifices. But Jesus himself is the priest – the offered and the Offerer.
The Church also has all these missions: Church has a prophetic vision. Church as the duty of proclamation and evangelisation. Proclamation is within the Church – to understand and interpret the word of God. All the Christians are called to be prophets. Evangelisation means proclaiming the word to the whole world.
What should be the manner of this prophetic life? In Jesus we see he denouncing the evil in the society and announcing the good news. Both denouncing and announcing are parts of this ministry. Both are equally important. But at present we are reluctant to denounce the evil. The source of our prophetic ministry must be scripture and tradition. Holy Spirit teaches us what to speak and what not to speak. He is the source of inspiration for us. The reality of the poor also must inspire as a source for our prophetic, ministry.
5. Functions – the church for Jesus Christ.
.
Why church exists for Christ? Since church is from Christ she has to be for Jesus because she is the body of Christ. Her function is to continue Christ’s mission i.e. to serve god and to serve the humanity. Jesus had a complete commitment to fathers will.
Lk 4, 16, to proclaim the good news, a number of ministries. Theologians summarizes his ministries into three namely ‘tria munera’.
5.1 Prophetic ministry – Teaching ministry
Jesus is the perfect word preached by god. He was the proclaimer and the proclaimed. He is the mouth piece of god. Thus his ministry was to preach, preached in word and deed. Unity between word and deed.
Prophetic – church members are to proclaim the word of god. Preaching the word of god must be in the church and outside the church. In the church by proclamation that is understood, interpret and preach the word of god. Outside the church in the form of evangelization. The manner of this is directly preach, read the signs of the time and preach.
The members are prophet in two ways
1. Denounce the evils in the society.
2. Announce the good news positively.
Sources of this prophetic ministry.
Sacred scripture, tradition, Holy Spirit, the signs of the time, the poor.
Who are the agents of this prophetic mission?
1. The magisterium.
Ordinary – pope with the bishops, Episcopal conferences.
Extra ordinary – ecumenical councils, papal definitions
2. The synod of bishops.
3. regional bishops conferences
4. sensus fidelium (reflections of the matured Christians)
5.2 Priestly – Sanctifying ministry.
Sanctifying role. In the OT priest was to sanctify the people of god. Jesus offered himself to father to liberate the humanity and to sanctify. Here in the NT the offerer and the offered are the same. That is the uniqueness of his priestly ministry.
Priestly function – church has the sanctifying role. Church is both sanctified and sanctifying community. Sanctified because specially called by God. Sanctifying because it is through sacraments it sanctifies.
5.3 Kingly ministry – Leading ministry.
Lead. He came to lead all people to lord. He is the only way, the perfect leader. His uniqueness was that he led people by service not by power or authority.
Kingly – church is entrusted to take up leadership both in the church and outside the church. The manner of it should be that of service. Leadership can be in the sacramental level and the pastoral level.
Now the church has to continue these ministries because church is the sacrament of Christ i.e. church has to make visible ministry of Christ.
According to Pre Vat all these ministries were confined to the leading clergies. According to Vat 11 these ministries are to be continued by all baptized. These ministries are to be shared by all. Between clergy and laity there is only a functional difference, others would say there is sacramental difference Ordination and baptism. LG 10 says here is a difference in essence.
1. General introduction
God gave a person then a proclamation and then a people. This is the historical and the theological order. God gave first a person, Jesus Christ as the object of faith and the basis of our salvation. The proclamation centers in the person. He is the centre of the message preached. The proclaimed word calls and gathers a people. The people respond to the proclamation of the person. The church is derived from the word o f the gospel and from the Christ who is the word. The oral message about Jesus Christ gathered a people and so created a church.
The church has a mission to the world so far a s it carries on the ministries of Christ. He came to preach and to save the world. From the parable of the sower we know that the seed is the word of god and the field is the whole world. Jesus gave a stroke and the disciples started the harvest at Pentecost. The church has to exercise the same task at the present time of secularism, because man, the object of salvation lives in the world and because the church and the world are ordered to god’s kingdom at the end.
The church is aware of the plan of god and co operates in the establishment of the kingdom through the god given energies that make it an ecclesial institution and causality of grace. While the church knows the purpose of its existence the world strives by itself to achieve truth and justice. It fails though because the absolute good is god himself. The ultimate wisdom is the wisdom of the cross and the salvation of man comes through the divine law of love. Only the church is the animating power that can help the world find its nature and grace. It is by the gospel of Christ and the means of his grace that the church has to renew itself while it leaves in the world and works for the work of Christ till he comes.
1.1 Meaning
The term church come from the Greek word ‘ekklesia’ the called out, the community of believers who experience salvation in Christ. In Hebrew the word for church is ‘qhall yhwh’ the community of the lord. So it’s a community called by god for god and in god. The popular meaning is the people of god ie. The people called out, called together, to be his people, by god himself. The Greek idea of ecclesiology is more Christocentric. Ecclesia appears 114 times in the NT. By St. Paul 46 times it is used.
1.2 Dimensions
Ecclesiology has both divine and human dimensions.
Ecclesiology from above – divine – church is created in the image of the triune community. Also we say church is the body of Christ ie something supernatural. Also we say church is the temple of the Holy Spirit. It is a religious reality.
Ecclesiology from below- human- here we understand church as institution, structure etc. it is a social reality having historical existence and horizontal dimensions. Church is the pilgrim people of god.
1.3 Levels
We can study ecclesiology from different perspectives: looking at from different angles.
1. Subjective- we are the church and we want to study it from within.
Objective – we look it from outside especially the institutional church.
2. Personal - how am I related to the church or what is my role in the church.
Social – I cannot just be personal. Communal dimension. Role of the parish or diocese in a particular situation.
3. Theological- Everything has to be centered on Christ.
Dialogical – about 150 churches. Ecumenical efforts. Need to know the uniqueness of Christianity.
4. universal – all the churches are to continue the mission of Christ.
Contextual – actualize this mission in various contexts by understanding the context.
1.4 Stages
Bellarmine – the first treaty of ecclesiology was written by Bellarmine (1542-1602), a Jesuit. It was in the context of the attack of the Protestants towards the hierarchy and institutional nature of the Catholic Church. According to him church is a perfect society. For him the nature of church is like a pyramid. The climax of his ecclesiology was the time of the end of Vat 1.
Vatican 1
Dogmatic constitution – ‘Pastor Aeternuson,’ the church of Christ 1870. Vat 1 dealt with the role of the church as a guardian and teacher of the revealed word. Vat 1 speaks of the institution and foundation of the church, the power of nature of the primacy of Roman Pontiff, the infallible magisterium of the Roman Pontiff etc. (Christian Faith 818-840).
Vat 11
The context is the Copernican revolution. Biblical, patristic, liturgical, ecumenical studies and missionary consciousness were given importance. There was a shift from ecclesiocentrism to christo-pneumatic centrism i.e. church as an institution to sacrament of Christ, works of the Holy Spirit. From church as a society to church as a communion. Pre Vatican focus on the identity of the church. Vatican 11 and the Post Vatican focus on the mission of the church.
2 Origin - the church from Jesus Christ
Without the raising of Jesus from the dead Christian preaching and Christian faith is futile (1Cor 15, 14-20) more than that without the raising of Jesus fro m the dead the community of believers, the church is meaningless. Only the certainty that the crucified Christ lives on as risen Christ glorified by god gives us the solution to the riddle of Jesus as a person and makes the church possible and real.
2.1 Jesus the founder of the church?
Two opinions – Jewish and catholic
Jewish do not accept Jesus as the founder. Paul is the one who organized the church. Jesus proclaimed only the kingdom of god.
Catholic – a community of salvation was the eternal plan of the triune god. Incarnation is the realization of this plan. Jesus mission was to build up a community of salvation. Church is the outcome of Jesus mission. Theological understanding
Jesus was the founder of the church not like the founder of the congregation. Jesus did not define the boundaries but gave the elements. Church is not institutional but inspirational.
Spiritual understanding.
Congar contributed it. The founder gives life and inspiration to the community.
Founder life
Structure
Gradual growth of the structure and history, life is the primary thing.
Historical understanding
God wanted to save the people of god. God chose Israel as his people to share his divine life with them through different persons, it is also through different events, starts with the call of Abraham, covenant, exile etc. it is also through different stages. One of the characteristics of this ways is already but not yet or there is but not yet realized.
Relationship with Jesus and Israel.
Jesus wanted to continue the same process of the father. He did not want to establish a community that is not like Israel. Eg is the selection of the twelve representing the twelve tribes.
Christ and Church
God wanted to save all humanity so a community of salvation in Jesus Christ, the son of God. This community that is the church is the sacrament of Christ. So church is the sacrament of salvation. Actually Jesus proclaimed the establishment of the kingdom of god. Many responded to it. Church is the historical incarnation of Jesus.
2.1.2 Christ and the Kingdom of God.
Many argue that Jesus is not the founder of the church. Jesus in the gospels always preached the kingdom of god. The signs of this kingdom are
• Miracles and signs
• Forgiveness of sin – by god only
• Table fellowship – Jesus shared meal with the poor
• Parables Mt 13,1-48
• A call for conversion – a radical ‘metanoia’ (Mk 1,15)
• Beatitude.
Jesus himself is the kingdom of god. Jesus wished to found the kingdom of god but there came out the church. Jesus’ mission is continued by the church.
2.1.3 Church and the kingdom of God.
Church and the kingdom of God are not identical, but they are related. There are similarities and dissimilarities between them.
Similarities: Both of them have same nature:
1. Theological: Kingdom of God is the plan of God. Origin and the end of the kingdom is theological. The same is with the church too. Origin, nature and the end of the Church is theological, i.e., God cantered.
2. Christological: kingdom of God is Christ centered. Church is from Jesus Christ, in Christ, with Christ and for Christ.
3. Universal: the kingdom stands for all – for all ages. There is no restriction or limitation for the kingdom. Church also exists for all. Vatican II says that church is the universal sacrament of salvation. But is Church universal today? Church exists for all.
4. Soteriological: Purpose of kingdom: salvation of all – everyone should share the divine life. Church also aims at the salvation of all.
5. Religious: (Religare = to relate). The purpose of kingdom is to relate the humanity with God. Church also has the same mission.
6. Challenging: both are challenging. Radical conversion is a must to experience the kingdom of God. Say ‘no’ to sin and say ‘yes’ to good. The message of the Church also is to live up the gospel value.
7. Eschatological: kingdom is already and not yet.
The founding events and principles of both church and kingdom have similarities. (Christ is not the founder of the Church, but he just laid foundation for the Church.)
1. Incarnation: to establish a community of salvation is the purpose of the kingdom. The message of the incarnation is clear in the nature of the kingdom and of the Church.
2. Election of the twelve: A renewed community. Jesus entrusted the mission to the twelve officially. This is the founding event. The church came out from the life and mission of the twelve.
3. Primacy of Peter. Apostolic succession and primacy of Pope.
4. Church in kingdom parables: parables reveal the mysteries of the kingdom of God. Kingdom parables help to understand the mysteries of the Church too.
5. Sharing juridical authority: at the end Jesus shared his authority with the Apostles.
6. Institution of the Eucharist: To establish a permanent relationship with God and humanity.
7. Paschal mystery: Foundation of the church.
8. Giving of the Holy Spirit: spirit gives energy and it guides the Church.
Differences
Before Vatican II both were identified. So the membership in the church was necessary to attain salvation. According to Vatican II the end of salvation history is not the Church, but the kingdom. Church has a role in the realization of the kingdom. Church is the best instrument for the realization of the kingdom, because it is instituted by Christ.
LG 1, 5: Church is the sign and sacrament of the kingdom of God. Sign is the pointer to something. Church is the pointer to salvation. Sacrament is an efficacious sign. It contains what it means. Christ is the sacrament of God. That means God perfectly manifested God. But Church is the founding sacrament. Church becomes a foundation for the experience of the kingdom of God. It is not a perfect sacrament because of its sinfulness. Church is not the exclusive realization of the kingdom of God. The whole cosmos is the stage for the realization of the kingdom. (The ideal Church includes the whole cosmos. But the present Church is not the exclusive stage for the realization of the kingdom). Church can realize the kingdom 1. Not by its power, but by the power of Christ – through perfect obedience to Christ’s commandment. 2. Not by our institutional structures; but we need the community of faith and love. This is needed for the realization of the kingdom of God. 3. Realize kingdom not with a crusading mind, but with a crucified heart – suffering and sharing. 4. By proclaiming the kingdom by words and deeds 5. Actualize the word of God in liturgy and sacraments 6. Recognize the presence of kingdom and God’s presence outside the Church too.
Church as the Herald and the Servant of the kingdom of God: It shows the difference between Church and the kingdom. Church is not the kingdom; but Church exists only for the kingdom. Church has to proclaim the kingdom through words and deeds.
Proclamation is of three types: Kerygma (by word), Koinonia (by life) and Diakonia (by service). The church serves the kingdom in three ways:
1. By becoming a kenotic Church = self emptying
2. By becoming a serving Church = self giving completely to the others
3. By becoming a suffering Church = self sacrificing.
The Eucharist is the perfect realization of this service. The Eucharist is the best model for the Church to become the herald and servant of the kingdom. The end of the salvation history is not the Church, but the kingdom of God. Church is only a partial realization of the kingdom of God.
2.2 From community to mystery – church of the apostles
2.2.1 Church as a community
Church is the created image of the Trinitarian community. The purpose of Jesus Christ was to establish a community here on earth i.e. kingdom of god. He founded a small community of 12 apostles at first. After the resurrection and Pentecost the followers founded the first messianic community at Jerusalem. It was the church conceived in Calvary born on Easter and manifested on Pentecost.
Members; a limited group of enthusiastic Jews and disciples of Jesus. The community was lead by the twelve, peter as the leader and spokesman of the community. The members of the Jerusalem community went to different places and proclaimed Jesus message.
The church of Jerusalem: the mother church, it was constituted mainly by the disciples. Other members were the first converts from Judaism and Hellenism. The community was lead by peter and others later by the deacons. The members of Jerusalem gathered in the temple for feasts and in the homes for breaking of bread.
The church of Antioch: first community founded outside Palestine by Hellenistic Jewish Christians. Here the believers were called the Christians. Barabass was sent from Jerusalem to the community and Paul of tarsus joined later. They were the leaders. Later the leadership was taken by bishops, deacons etc. one among them was Ignatius of Antioch.
Church of Rome: founded around 40-42 by Jewish Christians Jerusalem. In 1554 AD there was a quarrel between Jews and Christians. Christians were expelled fro m Rome. Later in 61 AD Paul reached the Rome and found a community that had a relationship with Jerusalem community. But in 64-67 there was a persecution by Nero, thus Peter and Paul were martyred.
Characteristics of Christian communities
1. The origin: they originated as the fulfillment of prophetic promises. It also originated as the realization of Jesus’ mission. Also as the anticipation of the eschatological kingdom.
2. Community as organized: there was a move from charismatic nature to an organized nature. In the beginning the activities of the church was depending on the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Expected parousia. Later they realized that parousia is not happening. This forced them to organize the community. A tension between church from above and church from below or between the action of the spirit and the structure of the church.
3. Nature of worship: they used to go temple for prayers. The new members were initiated to the community through baptism. They gathered together on every first day of the week for the breaking of the bread. They celebrated the faith experience of the risen lord in the liturgical acclamations like Amen, Alleluia, Maranata etc.
4. The community life. Lead life of one heart and one soul (Acts 4, 32-34). The communities were the challenging communities. And ethical movem4nt was there. It did not hand a definitive doctrine, no solid organizational structure but had a communal destiny. Thus they were model communities.
5. Community’s mission. Members of the community continued to proclaim the good news. Also there were tensions because of the cultural and liturgical problems. The apostles faced this struggle by appointing seven deacons. They preached against the temple and Jewish authority and it created tension. Thus persecution is started. Stephen became the first martyr.
Why church h is called a communion of communities.
1. Because they were united in the same way as the risen lord. Had the hope of final community, same bond of charity, there spiritual and material sharing.
2. They had some missions. Apostles shared the mission of Christ with the local leaders. One body and different aim.
3. When one encounters the local church, he encounters the church of Jesus (acts 20,28), Ephesus as gods church. There is only one church, one lord, one spirit etc. but diversity of grace. So church is a communion of communities.
2.2.2 Church as mystery
Community is the visible reality of the church. It also indicates an invisible reality, something hidden within the nature of the church. This invisible reality is explained by the term mystery. St Paul uses it as ‘mysterion,’ the saving plan of god in creation and history. This nature of saving plan is partially hidden but gradually realized (Schillbeckx- already not yet).
This saving plan is fully manifested in Jesus Christ. This saving plan of Christ which is hidden and partially revealed is to be realized in the church today. Thus church is a mystery. Church as the body of Christ is the realization of the mystery. It is with and through the church the triune god realizes the mystery on the salvific plan of god. Thus we say church is the tangible sacrament of god’s mysterion. The means used to realize the saving plan is the koinonia on communion. There are various types of koininia.
1. Theocentric koinonia: communion of god with humanity. Ie triune god gives divine life to humanity.
2. anthropocentric : koinonia among the believers, generosity, giving life to others
3. Ecclesial koinonia: koinonia of the local churches with the universal church.
4. Spiritual communion: of the local leaders of bishops with Rome.
This koinonia is triune in nature. Church is the created image of trinity. The perfect realization of the triune koinonia is realized in the Eucharist.
2.2.3 Basic Christian Ecclesial Communities
(Refer the sheet given by Fr. Puthenveettil)
2.3 From Institution to Sacrament – Church of the Post-Apostolic period
Christ- kingdom
Apostles – community
Post apostles – institution
Church is a historical reality: church is not a myth because it exists in time and space. Its origin goes back to a historical event that is Christ event, and the response given to this Christ event.
Church is a historical reality in its nature and mission. Here the idea of the church is produced and reproduced in the course of history through rites and so on.
This historical reality is a unique reality because there is san encounter between the transhistorical and historical. Church becomes a medium to encounter god with the people and vice versa. This unique reality is expressed in church as an institution.
What is an institution? It has three functions.
• Institution is a group of people
• There will be a permanent authority
• The communication of this authority
2.3.1 Church as a Charismatic Institution
Why church is called an institution?
1. because it is called the community of believers
2. This institution is constituted upon the faith in the risen lord. This authority is communicated to Christ’s representatives. (Mt 28, 20). The speciality of exercising the authority is that it is used in the service to build up the community of salvation.
Where do we see the basic structure of this institution?
At first in the founding of the church. His message of the KG to create a group of believers of salvation. His mission was to proclaim the good news. He gave the save power to the disciple to do the same. The visible authority is seen in the founding events of the church. They are there is a shift from institution to institutionalism. It started with when Christianity became the religion of Rome. Thus clericalism was shifted to hierarchialism. The idea of community was changed to socio political organization of the church.
In the beginning church was a sign of service. Then it became a political organization. It also moved from service and domination. The church defined herself as a perfect society against the reformists. Vat 1 itself defined so. It has all the marks of true society. Christ gave its existence. His will determined the form of its existence and gave its constitution. Church is not part of or member of any other society. It is so perfect in itself because it is distinct from all other society. And it stands above all other societies. So church is defined to be a perfect society.
During enlightenment there was a desire t o go back to the source and origin of the early apostolic life. Church is not a sociological institution why? It has not only a sociological nature because it has a social structure.
Not only sociological mission it has its own social responsibility. But its nature and mission should not be identified with its institution. In fact church exists for true sociological purpose.
Church is not a democratic society.
Church is also charismatic in nature. It is said so because of the Trinitarian foundation i.e. it is created in the image of the trinity. Triune god is the founder of the church.
Because of its Christological nature church is called to continue the life and mission of Christ. Church is the sacrament of Christ.
Pneumatological presence. Holy Spirit is actively present in the community by transforming church into the kingdom of god.
Spiritual governance. Though the church is governed by the laws of sociology it is spiritually governed by the action of the HS.
Because of the eschatological mission. Church is the sign of salvation. Church is both institution and charismatic. Church is a special historical reality because both are from Christ and HS. Both elements are necessary to fulfill its mission here of earth. But charismatic nature has priority over institutional nature.
How to explain these both expressions?
Vat 11 combined it as the sacrament i.e. church as a sacrament, invisible sign. Through natural revelation and supernatural revelation god reveals his sacraments. Both creation and redemption are sacramental. Jesus is the primordial sacrament of the father i.e. permanent sacrament of father.
Why Jesus is primordial?
• In Jesus the love of god is bodily present (Col 2,9)
• Jesus came to reveal fathers love to humanity. This is seen in his public life.
• Jesus is the visible and audible sign to encounter god.
• Jesus is the historical manifestation of the transhistorical logos. He is the efficacious sign of salvation. This salvation is achieved through his death and resurrection. So he is the perfect revelation of the father. He is the primordial sacrament because he is the perfect mediator.
Mediatorship in two ways.
• Descending mediation
• Ascending mediation.
2.3.2 Church as a sacrament of Christ. How?
1. By being an efficacious and visible sign of Christ. This redemption must be concretely realized in the celebration of the Eucharist of the daily life.
2. By actualizing Jesus’ mediation.
Church has two kinds of mission.
• Descending mission – church is the world to reveal the liberating love of god to all. This liberating love must be presented through the prophetic, priestly and kingly functions.
The pre Vatican documents always put the priestly function first but Vatican 11 put the prophetic function.
• Ascending mission – church has to bring all mankind to a life of faith. Church has to lead the people to worship true god. Here the church is also called to establish the kingdom of god.
3. By its historical manifestation. First manifest the spirit of Christ that the spirit of Christ is always alive in the community (acts 2, 33). Second, historically manifest the love of Christ. It should not be by commanding or preaching or by adding love to the structure laws etc. But manifest the love of Christ by our life. Jesus manifested it by his death. So church has to die for the poor and the oppressed.
4. Seven sacraments concretize the historical manifestation of Christ. In it we have the immediate access to salvation, on to the spirit of Christ. Church is the sacrament of the Holy Spirit. Thus church is called the spouse of the Holy Spirit.
What the church has to do to be the sacrament of Christ?
1. It should be a kenotic church i.e. self emptying church. (Mt 5, 3: Lk 4, 18). Church of the poor is clear in the early Christian communities. Now there are a lot of charitable institutions. Therefore now church is for the poor. That is a preferential option for the poor. (LG 8; 42, PO20, GS72).
2. It has to become a servant church. Jesus became a servant to the fellow beings by submitting his will to the father. He showed perfect obedience and become perfect sacrifice through death. Today church is also called to be a servant. First of all service at the world, not by becoming a slave of the world but by being an instrument of peace and justice. Sometimes this service is through a prophetic criticism.
3. By becoming a suffering church. Jesus saw suffering as the means to establish the KG and to redeem the human begins. This suffering took him to the cross. This church has to share in this suffering of Christ.
4. Ecumenical church. Christ is the greatest unifier. He brings the unity of the one god here on earth.
2.3.3. Church is the universal sacrament of salvation.
God had a salvific plan. And Christ came to fulfill this plan through his death and resurrection. Thus Christ is the sacrament of salvation. Now church has to continue the salvific plan of Christ by the early four points i.e. kenotic suffering etc. The members of the church have to experience Christ that church has to become the life, mission and means of salvation. In the history salvation was limited to the church alone.
Cyprian: baptism is necessary to attain salvation. No salvation outside the church.
Justin: activity of the logos is wider than the church. He was more liberal.
Augustine: church alone is the body of Christ. Holy Spirit does not vivify anyone outside the church. Hence those who are outside the church do not have the Holy Spirit.
4th Lateran council: there is one universal church of the faithful outside which no one is saved.
St. Thomas Aquinas: no salvation outside the church.
Boniface 8th: for salvation it is absolutely necessary that every human creature is subjected to the roman pontiff.
Council of Florence: the holy catholic church professes and preaches that no one remaining outside the church not only pagans but also Jews can become partakers of eternal life.
Vat 1: there are people who are ignorant of Christ and church. They should not be condemned. Because Christ’s salvation is for all. At least one should have the baptism of desire. (LG16, 14 SC5 AG1 GS45-48)
Some Christian perception salvation is universal and Trinitarian. Salvation is from god and it is for all.
Is salvation ecclesial? – Church is in god through Christ. Salvation is only possible through Christ.
Whether church is necessary for salvation?
1. Salvation intra ecclesial: God’s salvation in Christ is fully experienced in the church because it is the specific community of the saved. Christ’s himself instituted this saving community. This saving experience is fully manifested in the Eucharist today. Thus church is called medium of salvation. Here we have to be inside the church to be saved.
2. Salvation is extra ecclesial: for them Gods salvation is for all. God’s salvation is not the monopoly of the church. For them the KG is important. People of peace and harmony are people of salvation or KG. They have implicit expression of faith in Jesus.
3. Salvation is tota ecclesia : church is to be sign of salvation for all. Because it is a sign instituted for all. It is also instrument of salvation. Church is the primordial sign of salvation i.e. church receive salvation from the triune god.
3. Nature – the church in Jesus Christ.
3.1 From the father as the people of god
3.1.1 Salvific history of the people of God
It stresses the relationship between Church and God. God created everyone in his image and likeness, because God wanted to have his own people to communicate his love. The purpose of the creation of man is to form a people of God. But there came the fall – the people of God were separated from God. The original purpose of God was broken by the fall of Adam. Then comes the Old Testament. In order to build up the people of God, God again takes initiative. He interfered in the history. Through the people of Israel God wanted to save the whole humanity. Israel literally means God Reigns. This also implies the membership of a nation and of a religion. It is a sacred name of those who are chosen by God. Israel indicates a close relation between God and the people of Israel. Gen 12, 2 – 3: to create a new people of God through Israel – a people chosen by God and for God and to live in God.
Ex 6, 6 – 7: the title ‘people of God’ is well expressed here. By calling Abraham God started creating a new people of God. There was a covenantal relationship between God and Israel. The only demand to the Israel was ‘to be always faithful to the covenant’. But they often failed in remaining faithful to the covenant. Prophets came to remind them to become faithful to the covenant with Yahweh. Gradually the ‘people of God’ concept expanded with the New Testament. All humanity have to be people of God. By choosing the people of Israel God aimed extending salvation to all. But they did not succeed much. But in the New Testament the kingdom extended even to the gentiles. There is an intimate connection between new Israel and Old Israel.
1Pet 2, 9 – 10: People of God Reference is found here.
1Thess 1, 4: God chose the people. The act of choosing is done in the New Testament also. The first people chosen by Jesus are from the members of Israel. Theologically both people have same identity – called by God and having the same end.
New Testament is the renewed people of God. New people of God are not by the law of the flesh. They are the people of God by faith in Christ. Christ becomes the core of the people of God.
The conditions for membership in the new people of God:
1. One has to profess faith in Christ. 2. There must be a radical conversion (Metanoia) through baptism. 3. Prayer life – a religious Koinonia. 4. Social Koinonia – sharing 5. Meal aspect – Eucharistic communion – coming together to celebrate the Eucharist. 6. the aim of the new people of God is the kingdom of God. 7. New relationship.
The people of God in the New Testament is mentioned only once (1Pet 1, 10). But this idea is seen many times in Paul using different images and concepts.
There is both connection and difference with regard to the Old Testament people of God and the New Testament people of God. There is a progress in it.
With the fall of Jerusalem in 66 – 70 AD, the concept of people of God was divided into Christians and Jews. There was a conflict between Jewish Christians and the gentile Christians. This also caused the fall of Jerusalem. The centre of the Church was shifted to Rome. With the Edict of Milan the separation intensified. Church adopted a juridical system and became a state religion. A hierarchy came up in the Church due to the juridical structure. People of God were divided into clergy and laity.
During the age of monasticism there was a more awareness of the role of the laity. Luther came up with the idea of the people of God – there is only one people of God, avoiding the dualism of clergy and laity. Reformation aimed at eradicating this dualism.
Later in Catholic Action (a movement which promoted the sharing of responsibilities of priests and laity) laity was asked to participate in the activities of the clergy.
Before Vatican II we had two types of Ecclesiology: 1. Text book Ecclesiology, which stressed the institutional dimension 2. Progressive Ecclesiology, which stressed the people of God dimension of the Church. This was held by the reformers. Both these types influenced Vatican II.
3.1.2 People of God in Vatican II:
The council taught that
1. All are created to be the people of God. 2. All Catholics are people of God. There is no division between clergy and laity. 3. All other Christians are called to be the people of God. 4. All non Christians also aim at becoming the people of God.
Vatican II gives more importance to the mission of the Church rather than the identity of the individual (such as who is a priest, who is a lay person etc.). Laity also has an important role in the Church. Since Church has a sacramental role Church has to take a special responsibility to create the kingdom of God.
From the concept of the people of God Congar developed a Total Ecclesiology. According to this all are equal. We have to give preference to communion than participation. The preference is for mission than identity. The greatest one is the one who does his mission well. Lay people also are full members of the Church.
Popular Church of liberation theologians: The importance of hierarchy is negated. All are equal. Too much emphasis is given on equality of the faithful. Church is of the people. People of God concept was misunderstood to an extent. Synod of 1985 was convened to discuss this problem. It said that we need not one image (people of God) of Church only, but also the image of Church as the body of Christ. The synod tried to bring back the hierarchical structure of the Church.
Synod of 1987 stressed the importance of the laity.
Synod of 1990 emphasized the importance of both clergy and laity. Priests and laity together are called the people of God.
Evaluating the image of the People of God
Positive Elements
1. The continuity: People of God image is continuing from the Old Testament to the New Testament. They have same mission and nature.
2. This is more God centered. A good relationship with God. There is a special awareness of this.
3. People centered. This image can unite clergy and laity.
4. Equality over diversity. Equality in fulfilling mission.
5. A better relationship. This image helps us to have a better relationship – between laity and clergy, between universal Church and the local Church. This is also good for ecumenism and dialogue.
Negative Elements:
1. Tendency of Pluralism. We avoid the image of God. We need other images also to understand the nature.
2. Pluralistic Tendency: Due to over emphasis of priesthood of clergy.
3. Clericalisation of the Laity: Anybody can be the minister of even sacraments according to this.
We have to compliment the image of people of God with other images, so that we can have a better understanding.
3.1.3 The church and the Jews: One people of God
There is a spiritual link between Jews and Christians: Those who believe in Jesus are the sons of Abraham. The Jews were the medium to get the Old Testament revelation. They have an important role to convey the revelation from the Old Testament to the New Testament. Old Testament is a preparation to the New Testament. Jews must be respected because they are the first privileged group. The physical body of Jesus came from Jewish background. His first disciples are also Jews. So Jews and Christians should have a respect to each other, because we have a common patrimony.
3.2 From the incarnate Son as the Body of Christ
This shows Church’s relation to Christ. It also shows the relationship among the Christians. It is St. Paul who used this image – Christ as the body of Christ. In the Old Testament we do not see any such reference.
Body has two meanings. 1. A kind of organization (General body; body of soldiers etc.) 2. A living organism (human body, animal body).
Body of Christ: 1. Historical body of Jesus
2. Risen body of Jesus
3. Sacramental body of Jesus (Eucharistic body)
4. Mystical body of Christ (Ecclesial body)
Only a few people had access to the historical body because it was limited y time and space. All people have access to the risen body of Jesus. Eucharistic body has a more personal dimension. Ecclesial body has a communitarian dimension.
3.2.1 Biblical concept of the body of christ
The Church originated shares, experience and lives in the body of Christ. 1Cor 1, Rom, Eph, Col etc. speak of Church as the body of Christ.
1Cor 1, 16: the first usage of Church as the body of Christ. Division in the Church: in order to emphasis the need of unity St. Paul uses this image.
St. John also uses this image indirectly: as ‘wine and branches.’
Acts 9, 4: ‘Why do you persecute me?’ this also is an indirect reference to Church as the body of Christ.
The image of the body of Christ was later developed by St. Augustine in 1947 Pope Pius X’s encyclical Mediator Dei presents Church as the body of Christ. LG also calls Church the body.
Paul uses ‘body’ in Jewish and Greek background. Jews understood body as a living person – having relationship with others or who is open to others. In Greek sense body is a living organism – having internal or organic relationship within the members of the body. Paul uses both these meanings to explain the body. Jewish meaning is used to emphasis the relationship between Christ and the Church. The Greek meaning is used to refer to the relationship among the members. (1Cor 12). All members are united in one body and all of us are equal. All receives life from the head (Christ). We share the life of the risen Lord through baptism and Eucharist.
3.2.2 Theological Understanding of the Body of Christ (based on Paul)
1. Personal Communion with Christ: This is an incorporation into Christ. We are sharing the life of the risen Lord. Life in Christ is a gradual process of incorporation – a Christification. We have to make communion with Christ because he is the head of the body. (Col 1, 18; Eph 1, 22; 5, 23). Each Christian is invited to have a communion with Christ the head, from when the Church originated. Church and Christ are intimately related. We take life from the head. He is the source of eternal life. He is the basis of our unity.
How to have a relationship with this body. 1. By faith: An explicit expression of faith is needed. 2. Through baptism 3. Through Eucharist: Participation in the Eucharist to have a growth in this communion.
From personal incorporation to communitarian incorporation: we have an ecclesial union based on union with Christ. It is not sociological or organizational union, but an organic unity – body of Christ. Christian community is the body of Christ. They are one body, not separated bodies. (1 Cor 12, 27; Rom 4, 12). All the members have different gifts and charisms – they are united in Christ. All will have to function fro the growth of the one body: live in Koinonia. Serve the building up of the Church. Sharing for the building up of the Church. The pain of one part of the body should affect me too.
Church as the Mystical Body of Christ
Paul had an understanding of the mystical body; but he never explicitly speaks of the mystical body. Till the Middle Ages the body of Christ was understood as the historical body, the Eucharistic body or the mystical body and the Ecclesial body. From the middle ages there came up a shift. The concept of mystical body was shifted to ecclesial body. Pan Christianism taught that Christ is the extension of the physical body of Christ. In this situation the mystical body was applied to the Church. The reformers considered the Church as a hierarchical body: an organizational body. This also compelled to uphold Church as the mystical body. There is both a divine and human dimension in the church. Mystical body implies both divine and human (Mystical = divine; body = divine even though it cannot be divided).
Bellarmin is the one who first identified the ecclesial body with the mystical body, in the context of reformation. Reformers believed only in invisible Church. Church based on faith alone. They identified this invisible Church with the mystical body. This mystical body is more or less like the physical body of Christ. This invisible Church (of faith alone) alone will be saved.
It is in this background we can better understand the Catholic understanding of Church as the mystical body. When reformers said that there is only invisible Church (mystical body) the counter reformers said that Church is the visible hierarchical society. It is not purely invisible, nor like a physical body, it is deeper.
3.2.3 Magisterial teachings of the mystical body of christ
Pope Pius XII wants to explain the reality of the Church as the mystical body. He incorporated two ideas: 1. Interior reality of grace, 2. Role of the Holy Spirit (in his Mystici Corporis).
In his Mystici Corporis he says 1. Church is a body: hierarchically structured and it is a society. 2. it is not a simple body, it is the body of Christ. Because Church originated form Christ. Christ is the head of the Church; the source of life; unity of other members. Church is a sustained an grown through the sacraments. 3. Christ is the Saviour of the Church.
Human and divine dimensions are combined in the Church. Human = structure etc. Divine = it is Trinitarian.
Church is the Mystical body of chirst. This is to be distinguished from other bodies. It is not purely a natural body. It is not a moral body (not the union of ideals or ideas). It combines both internal and external of Christ. It is natural, moral, spiritual etc. it combines both human and divine dimensions of Christ. The concept ‘mystical’ combines all these realities of the Church. The mywstical union with Christ is through grace. Mystical union among Christians is through charity.
Pope then says that Church as the mystical body of Christ is perfectly manifested in the Roman Catholic Church. No other Churches or communities are identified with the mystical body of Christ. An explicit membership in the Roman Catholic Church is a must to be saved. It is a rigid position. The encyclical gives the principles of the membership. There are actual members and potential members. Actual members or real members have to fulfill three conditions: 1. Unity of faith: Profession of faith in Christ. 2. Valid baptism 3. Hierarchical communion with the Pope. When these conditions are fulfilled we become actual members of the Church. (Vatican II shifted these conditions: The possession of the Holy Spirit also was considered as a condition. According to the former even a sinful catholic can be the member of the mystical body of Christ, but to any non catholic, because they have no communion with the Pope.)
The potential members: All non Catholics and all those who possess grace. These conditions are more strict and juridical.
Vatican II (LG 7): Church as the mystical body of Christ. Vatican considered the understanding of Pope Pius XII as rigid and juridical. Vatican II second rejected the identification of the Roman Catholic Church and the mystical body. Instead of membership incorporation was given importance. (It is more a theological understanding rather than a juridical one). Christ builds up this body and shares life to this body through sacraments. Holy Spirit is the soul of this body of Christ. The intimate relationship between Christ and the Church is the central point of LG 7. Church is founded by Christ. He is the head of this Church. The union of the members to the head is by sharing divine live. Sharing 1. By baptism through which everybody is incorporated into the body of Christ. 2. through Eucharist: building up the Church. In baptism it is individual incorporation. In the Eucharist it is communitarian incorporation.
The unique Church of Christ with Peter as the visible head “subsists in” (LG 8) in the Catholic Church. Most of the elements are found in the Catholic Church. “subsists in” also indicates that other Churches and communities are also in different degree the mystical body of Christ.
The conditions to be the member of the mystical body of Christ are possession of the Holy Spirit, baptism (public expression of one’s faith) and hierarchical communion. The incorporation to the body of Christ can be 1. Perfect- when all three conditions are fulfilled 2. Imperfect – when any of these conditions are not fulfilled. These conditions are I view of ecumenism and these are given explicitly in UR. So they are more in view of Ecumenism. This also gives possibility of inter religious dialogue.
Incorporation
1. Organic incorporation: Everyone who is animated by the Holy Spirit is incorporated into the body. This animation by Spirit is manifested today in the reception of baptism. This is to stress the unity of the members. The people of the Old Testament, having animated by the Spirit are members of the mystical body of Christ. It also includes all those who are in the purgatory and the blessed ones in the heaven. Organic incorporation is more of charismatic nature.
2. Juridical incorporation: it is more institutional or hierarchical.
3. Participatory incorporation: it is the view of Vatican II. It combines both charismatic and institutional dimensions. A valid baptism is a basic requirement to incorporation into the body of Christ. The incorporation becomes full with the acceptance of the Papal office.
Organic incorporation has similarity with the views of Thomas Aquinas. Juridical incorporation is of Pope Pius XII. Participatory incorporation is of Vatican II.
Evaluation
There are positive and negative implications of the Church as the body of Christ. Positive: 1. unity of all the members in difference – all are one body of Christ, but different members. 2. All the members are to be active and members must respect each other. 3. Role of the Holy Spirit: there is only one Spirit and everyone is animated by the same Spirit – it leads to unity and growth. 4. It is more Christological, based on incarnation theology. 5. Mission of the members is emphasized rather than their identity. 6. it speaks about hierarchy. 1 Cor 12, 27 Different types of ministries 7. This image also speaks of life in the Church – having an intimate union with Christ. 8. it speaks about communion of the Church.
Negative: 1. the Christological dimension – it is understood in an organic sense. It is good to explain the relationship between Christ and Christians and among Christians. But it is a block to ecumenism i.e., it says there is only one mystical body and that is Roman Catholic Church. It is a block to the inter religious dialogue too. The people of God image is much broader. 2. This image emphasizes hierarchy mere as an institution. But Church is a charismatic institution. 3. Because of the emphasis on hierarchy there is the passivity of the laity. 4. The role of the Holy Spirit is not well explained. 5. More organic relationship to the body of Christ is emphasized.
3.3 From the holy spirit as the creation of the spirit.
3.3.1 The Holy Spirit and the church: bible and tradition.
In the OT
Holy Spirit was present in the act of creation. Spirit was active in the constitution of the people of Israel and also in the covenant.
In the NT
In the life and mission of Jesus – at birth, at baptism, at preaching, at sacrifice, at resurrection.
Spirit in the ecclesial community.
Here spirit is understood as a creator starting with the Pentecost.
Church and the spirit – Eph 2, 17-22 (the whole universal church is related to spirit) I cor 3,16. Particular churches are related to and created by the Holy Spirit. I Peter 2, 5 each baptized person is created by the Holy Spirit.
In the tradition (church and spirit)
• fathers show different terms to show the relationships
christification, divinization,spiritualization, trinitification all these show dynamic nature of the spirit.
• Fathers also use the word ‘epiclesis’ to explain the invocation of the Holy Spirit in the liturgy.
• The early catholic creed reads like: I believe in the Holy Spirit and the holy Catholic Church.
• Iranaevus refers explicitly to spirit ‘where the church is there is the spirit of god and where the spirit of god is found there is the church and all gods’ graces’.
• St. Augustine sees Holy Spirit as the soul of the body of Christ.
How spirit is related to church according to Vat 11.
HS is spoken of as the sanctifier, guide, unifier, vivifier.
Post conciliar theologians and the HS.
They developed a pneumatological ecclesiology. It is on the basis of the John Paul 11’s document ‘dominicum et vivificatum’.
3.3.2 The Holy Spirit and the church – theological reflection.
Its theological insights are
Identity – creation of the spirit.
Mission – church is charismatic in nature.
Between church and the spirit – they are not identified and opposed rather church is the sacrament of the spirit on the epiphany of the spirit. The spirit precedes the church i.e. spirit exists even before the church.
How spirit builds up the spirit.
• Through the word, through the written, spoken and heard word. Word of god becomes then a sacrament through which we encounter god.
• Spirit acts through liturgy. Through epiclesis the liturgical actions become the actions of the risen Christ. Through all the sacraments spirit sanctifies and transforms each believer.
• Through charity. Spirit enables us to love our neighbor.
3.3.3 The church is charismatic.
Charisms: different charisms are given to us. These can be given permanently for the fulfillment of the ministries. They are given temporally to fulfill a specific mission.
Charisms positively are the free gifts of god and given for the building up of true church. Negatively charisms are not privileges deserved to some members but given to all members.
Charisms are not extra ordinary because they are given in ordinary way, ordinary life to build up the church. They are not uniformed not fixed, but varieties of charisms are given to different persons in different degrees.
ICor 12, 2-14 speaks of different charisms. Rom 12,6ff, Eph 4,11ff, ICor7, 17ff.
Mission to the twelve is the special charisms.
Dimensions – the church of Jesus Christ.
4. Dimensions – the church of JesusChrist There are four qualities of the Church. They reflect the essence of the Church, helps us to understand Church in a better way. They also differentiate Church from other societies. They are the essential qualities of the Church. Church cannot exist without these qualities.
4.1 CHURCH IS ONE - Ecumenism
Jesus Christ only found one church. Then why there are so many churches? Every church claims that they have their origin from Christ. (There are about 30000 churches are there.) . Do these churches have real communion. Is this communion only spiritual or visible? Is it possible to have such a communion?
“Unity’ in Bible: The unity in triune God- immanent trinity. Unity is perfectly seen. Economic trinity- multiplicity is seen- three act specifically. The communication of God is through multiplicity. Oneness is manifested in the relationship between man and God- through different acts. Such as creation, election and liberation. The purpose of this communication is to be create one people of God.
4.1.1 Unity of Christ’s church.
In the New Testament: Jesus Christ is the one mediator who united God and humanity- one person two natures. It is oneness is manifested through two natures.
He is one with the Father, not only in substance, but also in love. In the son there is a unity between human and divine natures. This is more manifested in the unity in his life and mission. There is no dichotomy in his life.
He is also a perfect mediator between God and man. The perfect unity in triune God is perfectly communicated through the person of Jesus Christ. He is the one who can lead the humanity to unity.
Jesus had only one mission- the establishment of the kingdom of God. The ultimate object of this mission is one community, to bring everyone under the same flock.
Church in the New Testament: The term ‘ecclesia’ is used indifferent sense – for the universal Church, local Church, a small community gathered in a family etc. This means that all these belong to the one Church. 1 Cor 1, 10- 13: Division in the Church: Paul says Christ is the only foundation of the Church. 1 Cor 12: There is only one Spirit though there are different gifts. The one Spirit is the source and inspiration of the Church. Gal 3, 27 – 28: all are one in Christ. There is no question of difference in sex, race etc. Rom 12, 3 – 8: One body having different functions: This also indicates that we are called to be one Church. Acts 2, 42: Life of the early Christians: One in life and worship – a spiritual and social koinonia. Eph 4, l1 – 6: We are one body and one spirit. We have only one law, one faith and one baptism.
The early Christian community is the model of this unity of the Church. There are three levels of unity. 1. Unity of Faith: Faith in Jesus Christ. 2. Unity of worship: There was only one baptism and Eucharist. 3. Unity in leadership: The Spirit leads the Church through different persons; there is only one leadership.
The division in faith is heresy. It is the denial of a dogma. Dogma is a part of revelation and hence it cannot be reformulated. The content of the dogma remains the same. Heresy is also a false interpretation believed as truth. In the past most of the heresies were Christological. Now they are more ecclesiological. Theologians say that heresies are not completely wrong; they help the Church to deepen our understanding of the dogma.
The division in faith leads to division in worship and leadership, which is called schism. (Schism means separation). Papacy is the visible leadership of the Church. We can deny the papal authority directly or indirectly. If it is direct then a separation takes place. Also we can deny the papal authority by our actions.
4.1.2 Divisions in the Church
Divisions are due to faith, worship and leadership. Church has to realise the triune communion in the world. So separation in the Church is a scandal to the world.
Catholics say that the unity must be in both levels: in visible and in invisible levels. As Christ and the Father are one, so in the Church also there is an invisible unity. Besides, unity in worship (visible unity) also is needed. The invisible unity is to be manifested in the visible level too. Visible unity means the acceptance of Papacy. The Orthodox stresses on the spiritual union. Be united in love and fellowship. But they do not stress on diversity. The Protestants unity means unity in invisible level only. There can be diversity in visible level.
4.1.3 Restoration of Christian Unity: Ecumenism
Unity does not mean uniformity. We can have different stresses. But the content must be one ad the same.
Levels of Unity: Historically we have to accept Petrine ministry. Theologically also it is said that papacy is divine will, originated from Christ. Those who oppose this say that it is only human in origin. The authority is given to all disciples according to them. Canonically pope has the supreme power. But it is exercised collegially with the Bishops.
Unity in Ecclesiastical level: Unity in the Church.
Ecumenical Unity: Unity with other churches. It has three levels: A. Ecumenism to Rome: by other (Protestant churches), B. Ecumenism in Rome (which began with Vatican II), C. Ecumenism form Rome – a positive attitude towards to WCC etc.
Eschatological Unity.
4.2 CHURCH IS HOLY - Renewal
In Hebrew the term ‘katad’ means to separate. Real holiness means ‘separation from sin’ and separated for God (consecration). (Sin of commission and omission).
Who is a saint or holy person? He is the one who makes goodness attractive. Holiness is perfectly seen in God. Holiness derives from ‘unity’, oneness. Sin- lack of love= selfishness. In triune God there is no selfishness. There is perfect sharing of love or complete self gift. The love in triune God- love within the triune God = immanent; this love also extended love without. –Love of triune God shown to the humanity – through natural and supernatural revelations. Christ is the one who revealed this communion of the triune God.
God is holy (Ex. 19, 5-6). God wants to extend this to the people. That is why he chose them. Christ is the real manifestation of the holiness of God – perfection of holiness= in the perfect self gift to God in obedience and to humanity in service. So Jesus is totally sinless. There is real love in Jesus, to God and humanity. Jesus is the new Adam who related humanity to God in love through his sinless life.
Jesus is the perfection of holiness. He is sinless. He is separated from selfishness and he could give himself completely to God in obedience and love and also to humanity. He could share all what he has and even himself. The old Adam led humanity to sin through disobedience. The new Adam liberated us from sin and enabled us to love God and humanity. He is the manifestation of holiness. He is also the source of holiness, in and through Jesus God can make the whole humanity holy. The best means to experience his holiness is the Eucharist; the Eucharistic life. Basing on this we can say that church is holy.
4.2.1 Holiness of Christ’s church
Church is holy because it originates from the Triune God, who is perfectly holy. By the very origin church is called to be holy. Church is the creation of the Holy Spirit.
Objectively speaking church is holy. But subjectively it is a pilgrim church. All Christians are called to holiness. We have not yet became fully holy, both sinfulness and holiness are there in the church because it ha s both human and divine dimensions.
Pre Vat –holiness is more personal rather communitarian. But the present is different. Communitarian aspect is emphasized. All are called to holiness.
Pre Vatican – for the ordinary people the means to holiness is the observance of the commandments. For the extra ordinary people the means to attain holiness sis the evangelical counsels- poverty, chastity and obedience. Observance of them is the means to holiness. But vat II – through baptism all people are called to holiness. There is only one holiness and one way to holiness – charity: Love of God and of neighbour
Church is called ‘communion of saints’ because it is sacrament of Christ, because it is the sacrament of Christ. All have the ability to become holy. Every member is called to holiness. Church is the temple of Holy Spirit. Through incarnation Christ manifested that the whole world can be sanctified. Now the holy spirit constantly renews and sanctifies the whole world with his gifts and charisms.
Reception of the sacraments is a means of sanctification. Listen to the word of God and do works of charity for renewal. Vat II invites us to become holy and also reminds us of our sinfulness.
4.2.2 A Holy Sinful Church
Sinfulness – within the church – of the members, leaders, in the ministry etc. outside the church in our attitude, in our lack of commitment to justice etc.
A constant renewal of church is needed. The holiness reveals the real nature of the church. The sinfulness hinders the true nature of the church.
4.2.3 Renewal and Reform of the Church
Church is a pilgrim church. It is not fully holy; but in the process of becoming fully holy. It needs a constant conversion. Conversion of elimination of selfishness.
Signs of renewal : simplicity of renewal , commitment of life, self emptying life, persecution and martyrdom.
4.3 CHURCH IS CATHOLIC - Mission
Kathlicos = oriented to the whole, open to the all.
The term Catholic is used by the fathers. It is Ignatius of Antioch who is used this term for the first time. Where ever there is Jesus Christ, there is the “Catholic church”. Ignatius.
Catholic has different understanding:
1.) Catholic means authentic; church is Catholic because it is truly founded by Jesus Christ.
2.) Catholic means universal: church has perfect relation to God; it originated from triune God. Church also has a horizontal relation also.- with the local churches. A church that is oriented to the whole humanity.
3.) Catholic is used as opposed to their heretical and sectarian communities.
4.) Catholicity means communion with all the churches – both sacramental and hierarchical communion- communion with the bishop of Rome also is important to become a Catholic.
5.) Catholic means fullness – church is Catholic because it teaches the fullness of doctrine. Church extends salvation to all. Church is Catholic because it possesses all virtues.
Catholic means ‘that which exists for the whole’ or that exists for all; which exists every where and always.
Church is to be Catholic spatially too. That is why we do missionary activities .church has to spread all over the world. Temporal catholicity also is important = church has to exist for all times.
Church extends salvation to all; it enables all people to have a perfect communion with God.
Theological basis of the catholicity of the church
Salvation history is a mixture of particularities of persons and universality of mission (salvation). The mission and universality is to extend the love of God to whole humanity.
Dimensions of catholicity
1) Catholicity from above. It is something supernatural. It is gift to humanity. It is something transcendental in its nature. But in history the catholicity is manifested through particularities and particular persons and events. But through these particularities God aims at universality. Incarnation is the perfection of particularity and universality.
2) Catholicity from below: When God extends his love the whole humanity has to respond to God. Church as the people of God, body of Christ and temple of the Holy Spirit is the best instrument to help the people to experience the catholicity of God’s love.
3) Catholicity in breadth: We have to extend the universality of the love of God in a geographical sense. Here comes the relevance of missionary work.
4) Catholicity is eschatological: Catholicity is fully realised in the realisation of the kingdom of God. We are still in the way to that.
Means of Catholicity
1. Communion with God in Christ: Here we realise that our ministry is for all; we will not confine our ministry to a few people.
2. Communion with the Church: Local Church must have a communion with the universal Church among the local Church. The local Church is a liberated and liberating community.
3. Communion with non Catholic Churches = Ecumenism. Working together would intensify the catholicity of the Church.
4. Missionary Activity: The sacramental life enables people to attain catholicity. It enables us to extend the love of Christ to all.
Institutional structure is another level of missionary activities. Charitable works through the institutions to all people and thus the catholicity also is expanded. A special communion with the poor and the oppressed is a must now. People of God are oriented to the whole humanity - to improve all.
Catholicity of the Church is not understood as universal organisation.
4.4 CHURCH IS APOSTOLIC - Ministry
Apostolic means “Like Apostles”. The mission of the Church is the mission of the Apostles. Church originated form the Apostles – from the Apostolic experience. The life of the Church is similar to the life of the Apostles. Church is faithful to the Apostolic experience in her teaching. Church has the succession of power from the apostles.
Apostle: According to the Acts an apostle must be a witness to the resurrection, must be accompanying Jesus during his ministry. With regard to a later Christian these conditions cannot be fulfilled. So this is very narrow. According to St. Paul an Apostle must have seen the Lord. He must have received a commission form the Lord. His mission is to be confirmed by signs and wonders (2 Cor 12, 12). These conditions are much broader. According to this it is possible even today. According to this we can say that an apostle is the one who is sent by God for a specific mission.
Jesus Christ is an Apostle
Christ has witnessed the Father. He has received a specific mission from the Father. His mission is confirmed by signs and wonders. Jesus Christ is the perfect apostle. His apostolicity is perfect. His mission also indicates the perfection of his apostolicity. He communicated the mysteries of God to man. His mission was perfectly confirmed by signs especially be his death and resurrection. With regard to the other apostles the wonders and signs are extrinsic (something outside the person). But in Jesus this is intrinsic (the very person himself is the sign). In this sense he is the perfect priest too – the perfect mediator.
Connection between Jesus and the Apostles
Jesus called the apostles ‘to be with him’ or ‘to see him.’ They were given a mission that is uniquely related to the kingdom of God. They were sent out with this mission. He set an apostolic college of the twelve. He trained them in a specific way. Peter was appointed the head of this apostolic college. In the second part the apostles were sent out by the Lord for a specific mission.
Church is Apostolic
Church has an Apostolic Foundation. Church is an apostolic community; it has its origin and continuation from the apostles. There was the direct link with the apostles’ community. The church also has apostolic tradition – the teachings of the apostles are continued in the Church. The apostolic succession is there in the Church. The power communicated to the apostles is handed down to the successors.
There is a difference between pre and post Vatican II. In the pre Vatican period the hierarchy is considered to be apostolic, i.e., there is a direct link with the apostles. With Vatican II the whole Church is considered to be apostolic. Apostolic office is only a sign. The essence of the Church is apostolic. The whole Church is sent out. The full participation in the mission of the Church begins with baptism. Formerly it was thought that it is through Ordination. Through baptism all invariably participate in the ministry of Jesus. So all have the responsibility of continuing the ministry. So lay people also have to be integrated into the mission of the Church. The difference is only in office, but not in essence.
4.4.2 Various ministries in the church
God in the history intervened through different people, through prophets, priests and kings. This three fold ministry is very evident in the Old Testament, Christ event and in the ecclesial life today. Today we have to fulfill our mission through these ministries. Christ is the perfection of these ministries. In him all these ministries are seen. So he is the perfect mediator and perfection of revelation. He is the perfect prophet because all the Old Testament Prophesies were fulfilled in him. Besides Old Testament prophets spoke for Christ. Jesus is both the proclaimer and the proclaimed. Word and deed are completely united in him. He is the perfect king or leader. His is eternal kingdom. His power was for service. He leads the people through the way which is he himself. The end also is he himself. He is a perfect king because he serves both God and man. I the Old Testament priests offered sacrifices. But Jesus himself is the priest – the offered and the Offerer.
The Church also has all these missions: Church has a prophetic vision. Church as the duty of proclamation and evangelisation. Proclamation is within the Church – to understand and interpret the word of God. All the Christians are called to be prophets. Evangelisation means proclaiming the word to the whole world.
What should be the manner of this prophetic life? In Jesus we see he denouncing the evil in the society and announcing the good news. Both denouncing and announcing are parts of this ministry. Both are equally important. But at present we are reluctant to denounce the evil. The source of our prophetic ministry must be scripture and tradition. Holy Spirit teaches us what to speak and what not to speak. He is the source of inspiration for us. The reality of the poor also must inspire as a source for our prophetic, ministry.
5. Functions – the church for Jesus Christ.
.
Why church exists for Christ? Since church is from Christ she has to be for Jesus because she is the body of Christ. Her function is to continue Christ’s mission i.e. to serve god and to serve the humanity. Jesus had a complete commitment to fathers will.
Lk 4, 16, to proclaim the good news, a number of ministries. Theologians summarizes his ministries into three namely ‘tria munera’.
5.1 Prophetic ministry – Teaching ministry
Jesus is the perfect word preached by god. He was the proclaimer and the proclaimed. He is the mouth piece of god. Thus his ministry was to preach, preached in word and deed. Unity between word and deed.
Prophetic – church members are to proclaim the word of god. Preaching the word of god must be in the church and outside the church. In the church by proclamation that is understood, interpret and preach the word of god. Outside the church in the form of evangelization. The manner of this is directly preach, read the signs of the time and preach.
The members are prophet in two ways
1. Denounce the evils in the society.
2. Announce the good news positively.
Sources of this prophetic ministry.
Sacred scripture, tradition, Holy Spirit, the signs of the time, the poor.
Who are the agents of this prophetic mission?
1. The magisterium.
Ordinary – pope with the bishops, Episcopal conferences.
Extra ordinary – ecumenical councils, papal definitions
2. The synod of bishops.
3. regional bishops conferences
4. sensus fidelium (reflections of the matured Christians)
5.2 Priestly – Sanctifying ministry.
Sanctifying role. In the OT priest was to sanctify the people of god. Jesus offered himself to father to liberate the humanity and to sanctify. Here in the NT the offerer and the offered are the same. That is the uniqueness of his priestly ministry.
Priestly function – church has the sanctifying role. Church is both sanctified and sanctifying community. Sanctified because specially called by God. Sanctifying because it is through sacraments it sanctifies.
5.3 Kingly ministry – Leading ministry.
Lead. He came to lead all people to lord. He is the only way, the perfect leader. His uniqueness was that he led people by service not by power or authority.
Kingly – church is entrusted to take up leadership both in the church and outside the church. The manner of it should be that of service. Leadership can be in the sacramental level and the pastoral level.
Now the church has to continue these ministries because church is the sacrament of Christ i.e. church has to make visible ministry of Christ.
According to Pre Vat all these ministries were confined to the leading clergies. According to Vat 11 these ministries are to be continued by all baptized. These ministries are to be shared by all. Between clergy and laity there is only a functional difference, others would say there is sacramental difference Ordination and baptism. LG 10 says here is a difference in essence.
PASCHAL THEOLOGY OF ST EPHREM
1. ST. EPHREM - AN INTROUDCTION
1.1. Some Biographical Notes
St Ephrem was born in 306 AD at Nisibis (now in Turkey). He was born probably of Christian parents. However according to Syriac version of his life, his father was a pagan priest. If it is true, he could have been converted later. It seems that he had a mystical bent and had an aversion to the world. And he seems to have retired to a mountain nearby where he received early education from an old Anchorite.
His intellectual career was influenced by three successive bishops, namely Mar Jacob, the first Bishop of Nisibis, Babu and Walgash. Ephrem was baptised probably only after catechumenate (CH.3,13) and probably he simultaneously joined Qyama- the covenant (Bar Qyama- one in minor orders, one vowed to religious life). He was later ordained Deacon (CH. 56,10).
St Ephrem knew probably little Greek and showed very little debt to Greek Philosophy. But the fundamental tenets of Platonic and Aristotelian Philosophy were not unknown to him.
According to tradition St. Ephrem accompanied Bishop Mar Jacob to take part in the council of Nicea (325). After the council Mar Jacob founded the school of Nisibis where Ephrem taught for about 30 (38 ?) years. After 30 years of teaching in Nisibis , he had to take refuge in Edessa in 363 with the entire population because his own city fell into the hands of the Persians after Julian’s death. There he lived 10 years and became one of the founders of the Edessians school. He died in 373 at Edessa. He was declared Doctor of the Church by Pope Benedict xv on 5th Oct. 1920 by the bull “Princepes Apostolorum” after 1547 years of his death.
As the theologian of the Syriac Church and the defender of orthodoxy , he is no way less important than Basil the Great. In Ephrem we have a good poet, a musician, an apologist a theologian and a preacher.
1.2. The Syriac Church At the time of St. Ephrem
The first Christians of Edessa were Jewish descendants. The Christianity that had spread in the entire Mediterranean basin remained here Jewish in structure until the second century. The Jewish community at Edessa had considerable influence on the thought and practices of this city. In the beginning Christians and Jews lived in easy terms. Both shared pagan cemeteries. They had the same local language (Aramaic) and used Targum as common scripture. The influence of the Jews paved the way to Christianity. Even in the same family there could have been Jews and Christians for a long time as the probation for the new faith took time.
The separation between the Christians and the Jews developed slowly. The Jews rejected the gospel and drove the Church out of the synagogue. Under the Roman hegemony Nisibis was free to communication with Palestine and Antioch. After 216 Edessa became under the responsibility of the Bishop of Antioch. Since then Greek influence was strong in the Syriac Church.
Both the Christians and Jews claimed to be the inheritors of the past. The Jewish antagonism made Christianity conscious of her own identity. The Church was in a dilemma to renounce the Jewish practices and to affirm his continuity with God’s alliance in O.T. She was poised between this Jewish past and non-Jewish present.
Jewish orthodoxy was a matter of practice rather than belief. The charges brought against the Christians in the early stages of evangelism were not concerned with the messianic claim as such, but with their challenge to the traditional nerve centers of the Jewish religion, namely the law and the temple. The Church however had to renounce the Jewish heritage and at the same time wished to affirm her continuity with God’s alliance in the O.T. Thus she remained poised between her Jewish past and non- Jewish present.
Already in the writings of Aphrahat we see the Jewish Christian antagonism. Probably his fellow Christians maintained Jewish practices like Sabbath, circumcision, eating the unleavened bread at the Passover etc. Possibly the Syriac Church observed the paschal celebration on the Jewish date. Ephrem’s writings reflects bitter hostility towards Judaism. Though he was aware the continuity of the Church with the Hebrews, he had little sympathy for them. The Syriac Church was separated from Judaism by the 4th century. One can observe in the Syriac Christianity of the time of Ephrem, a Semitic mentality linked with biblical and Jewish tradition.
1.3. Heresies
Ephrem lived in a pagan and Jewish environment. He had to fight the heterodox adversaries as manichaens, marceonites, the followers of Bardaisan and above all the Arians. Therefore he had to defend orthodoxy. His was a time of crises, with opposing dogmatic trends, for the Syriac Church. Ephrem was an ardent soul, straight, prudent, well balanced and profoundly zealous for God and his Church.
Arianism, with its much developed Greek categories made the Syriac authors defenceless, for this language not as well developed, and they were in the habit of thinking in pictorial symbols. In this situation Ephrem came into front with his hymns and sermons. He combated heresies mainly not by reasoning , but by symbolic imageries. He makes use of his rhetorical and poetical talents in order to defend the true faith against the heresies.
1.4. Literary activity of Ephrem
Ephrem’s writings can be classified into Commentaries on scriptures, Homilies, Hymns and Sermons. He was a prolific writer, who wrote prose and poetry. According to Sozomon, he wrote three million lines Most of his works were translated into Armenians, Coptic, Arabic, Ethiopic and Latin. He was a master of Syriac style. At the same time he was close to the life and thought of the ordinary man, to whom his writings were understandable. Moreover he lived at the golden age of Syriac poetry.
For Ephrem God and his redemptive plan and salvific work is a mystery. He tried to express the mysteries in symbols and parables rather than in philosophical categories. In him we have a poet theologian in the true sense of the word. He wrote Madrase (Doctrinal Hymns) and Memre (Poetical Homilies). His writings reflects his own faith. At the same time he was a true spokesman of the Syriac Church of the 4th cent.
1.5. Exegesis
The exegesis of the Syriac fathers and especially of Ephrem was oriented to the life of the people. Primary concern was not speculation, but life i.e., ecclesial and practical life of the Christians.
There are similarities between the Rabbinic exegesis and Ephremian exegesis. A closer study of Ephrem will reveal that his method is the Pauline and Christian typology.
Ephrem takes the Scriptural texts as literal and real. He is aware of the unity of the Bible. The O.T converges on the N.T. Both form one integral whole. One is explained in the light of the other. The same Spirit, the same Saviour, and the same Divine will are at work in both Testaments.
1.5.1. Typology
Typology as a method of exegesis may be defined as the establishment of historical connections between certain events persons and things in the O.T and similar events, persons and things in the N.T. It is grounded on a particular view of salvation history. It is essentially a historical interpretation based upon the continuity of God’s purpose throughout the salvation history. Ephrem makes use of typology in order to explain the link between the O.T and N.T and also between this world and the heavenly world.
1.5.2. Symbolism
In Ephrem’s vision God reveals Himself in a twofold manner: in Nature and in the Scripture. He finds perfect harmony between the two. For him everything in Scripture and in creation are God’s symbols, which speak of God.
As S. Brock observes symbols and types work for Ephrem on two separate planes; Horizontally, between the O.T and the N.T and vertically, between this world and the heavenly world; in both cases they serve to uncover something of the hidenness of mystery not yet fully revealed. All the symbols of the O.T focus on Christ, the Lord of symbols, who reveals their true meaning in the N.T. He is not worried about the order or logic of his symbols. For him all of them focus on Christ.
A symbol makes an abstract thing understandable in the concrete. By means of the typological exegesis Ephrem tries to fathom the mysteries of revelation, which are beyond human understanding.
2. PASCHAL THEOLOGY OF ST. EPHREM
2.1. Introduction
In Ephrem’s conception there are two Passovers, two Lambs and two Redemptions. The first Pesah and the first paschal lamb played their role in Egypt for the exodus of the Israelites. It was a type and the symbol of the second and the true Pesah which has been realised in Christ at the last supper and at Calvary and is being realised in the Eucharist of the Church. This is the reality and fulfilment. The redemptive fruit of the former paschal lamb was transitory and symbolic, whereas the salvific effects of the latter are permanent and real. There is still a third phase, in which the ‘sealing of the reward’ will be realised- namely in heaven. The type ‘raza’ was in Egypt; the reality Srara in the Church. the sealing of the reward hutam purcana will be in the kingdom. This verse reflects Ephrem’s conception of the continuous progress of man’s salvific process and of God’s working for it. The life of the Christian is oriented to the kingdom, just as Jesus was destined to return to the Father. So, too, is the Church to end up in its full realisation in the kingdom of heaven. Here we shall expose briefly the realization of the paschal mystery in three stages.
2.2. Paschal mystery-The Realisation at the Last Supper
2.2.1. The Church of the New Covenant
Under this title we shall see how the realization of the true paschal lamb took place at the last supper. The Upper Room is in Ephrem’s vision the first Church where the first sacrifice was offered by Christ. It is there that the two lambs met each other and the two paschs were celebrated; the old for the last time and the new for the first time. In the new pasch Christ is the true paschal lamb and also the true unleavened bread. For Ephrem last supper was not only the paschal meal, but also the sacrifice of Calvary in anticipation. Thus he sees the sacrificial and meal aspects of the Eucharist already in the last supper which Jesus celebrated with his disciples in the Cenacle.
2.2.1.1. The Cenacle; The first Church of Christ
In his theological reflection Ephrem finds the Cenacle blessed because the first Church in which Jesus became true Altar , Priest and victim. In Cruc. III,10 the unique position and value of the sacrificial Christ are very well illustrated. Ephrem takes Eucharist as perfect sacrifice. He finds in Christ all the elements needed for a perfect sacrifice. (cf. Heb 7,27). All the terms of sacrifice are realised in his sacrifice. He is the priest- Kahna, the bread-lahma, the cup of salvation-Kas purqana. He is the altar- Alta and lamb-Emra; the victim- debha and the offer-Dabuha; the priest- Kumra and the offered food- Matek lana. Ephrem puts no sacrificial element even the Altar, outside Christ. He points to the richness and uniqueness of Christ’ sacrifice in which all other sacrifice found their fulfilment. Ephrem looks back and contemplates the scene of the last supper in the light of his own Eucharistic experience in the Church.
In another place (Cruc. II,12, v-viii) Ephrem sees the Cenacle as the first sanctuary in which first sacrifice, Christ Himself was offered. It is a sacrifice that constitutes sanctuary. The Church becomes the sanctuary through the sacrifice of Christ in it. The Cenacle was the proto-Chuch, where the Eucharist sacrifice was offered by Christ for the first time. Ephrem cannot envisage the Church without the Eucharistic sacrifice.
In Cruc. III, 5 it is instructed that the last supper in the Cenacle at which the ‘Great’ covenant of the New Economy was sealed by the Blood of Christ (cf. Matt. 26,28; Mk 14,24; 1Cor 11,25). St. Ephrem finds a parallelism between the mount Sinai and the Cenacle. He compares the Cenacle to a mirror through which the whole world can be seen. He sees the O.T symbols of blood, sacrifice and covenant as if by reflection when he contemplates Christ in the Church.
2.2.1.2. The Two Lambs
In the Cenacle Ephrem sees two Lambs present; the paschal Lamb and the True Lamb. The Apostles stood between these two Lambs i.e., between the Symbol and the Truth. They witnessed the cessation of the symbol and the beginning of the Truth (Az. VI, 1-2). Here Ephrem contrasts Old and the New paschal lambs and describes the redemptive working of both. It is not, however, a mere play of words, but a presentation of the redemptive work in its progress, the culmination of which he sees at the last supper.
In another hymn Ephrem reflects that it is in the Cenacle that the two lambs, namely the paschal and the true lamb meet each other. There the symbol reached its goal and gave way to the Reality (Cruc. III,11).
The paschal lamb is transitory, whereas the True Lamb, the Lamb of God, lives for ever. In the Cenacle the former finishes its course and the latter takes up its role. The one stops where and when the other begins.
2.2.1.3. Two Paschs
The two Lambs correspond to the two Passovers namely that of the O.T and that of the N.T. According to Ephrem Passovers were intermingled in the Cenacle. In Cruc. III,2 our holy Doctor contrast the two Passovers; first is small and the second ins great, which is our Lord Himself (cf. I Cor 5,7). He observes the close connection of the two Passovers, but he is categorical about their distinction and disparity. The one is transitory because it is the symbol and the other is everlasting because it is the fulfilment.
Paschal lamb is a key for Ephrem to discover and to understand the true nature of redemption. He presents in Az. V, 15-18 the superiority and the uniqueness of the redemption of Christ, the true Paschal Lamb, comparing it with the saving act of the paschal lamb in Egypt.
Ephrem contrasts the two paschs and he affirms their distinction and disparity and shows the superiority and uniqueness of the Second Pascha (cf. Cruc. II,3). Paschal Lamb is the key for him to discover the nature of redemption brought by Christ.
2.2.2. Christ, the True Lamb becomes the True Unleavened Bread
Ephrem takes up the second important element of the Passover, namely the unleavened Bread (Patira) (Ex. 12,9). Identifying the unleavened bread with Christ’s body, he explains the sacrificial aspect and the meal aspect of the Eucharist, the New Passover.
2.2.2.1. The Unleavened Bread of New Paschal Sacrifice
Christ, the True Lamb breaks His Body which becomes the unleavened bread for his disciples. In Az. XIX 1-3 he explains the sacrificial mystery of the Eucharist and the mystery of the cross. Here he mentions about ‘breaking of body’ the verb break- klao-qsa which signifies sacrifice oneself, offer one’s whole person, divide oneself for others. Jesus ate the paschal and the unleavened bread; then his body i.e., He Himself became the true Lamb and the true unleavened bread and thus he took away the shade and gave the Truth.
According to St. Ephrem the Lamb and Eucharistic bread are identified in Christ. The breaking of bread and the mixing of the cup is the symbol of the sacrifice of His body and Blood, says St. Ephrem (Az. II, 7). For him the intimate connection between the Eucharistic sacrifice and the Cenacle and the sacrifice of Christ on the cross is important. The Eucharistic sacrifice was at once a symbol of the sacrifice of the cross and a reality. The former was an anticipation of the latter and is to be seen in the light of the latter’s force. For St. Ephrem the breaking of bread by Jesus in the Eucharistic sacrifice was real as his passion and death that followed it because of its certainty, immediacy and preview of the later (CN. 49,2).
The Last Supper was the prototype of the Eucharist. Christ’s words at the last supper were not an announcement but a decision. It was proleptic and anticipatory of the sacrifice that was as to follow. For the Christian also it is proleptic and anticipatory of the full experience of the risen Lord in heaven.
2.2.2.2. Christ the Unleavened Bread of the New Paschal Meal
Here Holy Doctor tries to illustrate the meal aspect of the Eucharist. The unleavened bread of the O.T. Pesah became obsolete through the bread which Jesus broke during the last supper. St. Ephrem has here Jn 6,35. 48. 50 in mind. This bread (Eucharist) is given us today by the Church. Through this new bread we are not only given life but are united with Christ in a profound manner. In Virg. 37, 2 St. Ephrem gives a vivid picture of what happens in the Eucharistic meal at the Cenacle and in the Church. Jesus becomes for us the bread of life. He adopts on unsurpassed means of communication which is intimate in human nature, namely the assimilation of food. St. Ephrem is very realistic about the profound union between Christ and Christian achieved through the Eucharist. His basis is Jn 6, 56; body into body, blood into blood communion of body and blood of person and life.
The Cenacle is the place where the reality took over the symbol. Here in the Cenacle, the first sanctuary ,where the great covenant was sealed. The Eucharistic sacrifice at the last supper made a future reality already presented, whereas the Eucharistic sacrifice in the Church makes a past reality present. According to St. Ephrem the Church and the Eucharist are inseparable. He finds the birth of the Church in the Cenacle where Jesus celebrated with his disciples the first The Eucharistic sacrifice and ate the First The Eucharistic meal.
2.3. PASCHAL MYSTERY - REALIZATION AT CALVARY
On the cross at Calvary Ephrem sees the culmination of the realization of Christ, the true Paschal Lamb. At Calvary He is the true Lamb and the priest; He is the Lamb and the shepherd. In Him victimhood and priesthood, victim and priest are identified.
2.3.1. Jesus the Lamb
Ephrem finds the types of the Lamb in the O.T. For him Abel is the first type of the true Lamb (Nat. 1,42). In Gen. 4,4, Ephrem sees a Lamb offered a Lamb. This lamb is the forerunner the lamb of Abraham (Gen 22,13) and of the Paschal Lamb of the exodus night (Ex 12) and of the Lamb of the God of Jn 1, 29. Abel who offered a Lamb becomes later himself a victim (Gen 4,4).
Jesus the true Lamb was symbolised in the Lamb cooped up from the exodus night (Ex 12, 33-36) and also by Moses who was shut in as a child for a three months. Both of them gave liberation to the Israelites. Jesus the true Lamb is the New liberator. Ephrem contemplates the seen of the visit of the shepherds to the new born saviour in Bethlehem a Lamb was offered to the true Lamb. According to the Saint, Bethlehem is blessed because in her the Lamb of God bleated for the first time. (Nat 25, 13).
2.3.2. Jesus: Priest and lamb
The priests and the Levites of the OT were not holy and so were insufficient to offer the true Lamb. Jesus Himself, therefore, became priest and high priest for sacrifice which put an end to all other sacrifice. In the OT priests were more valuable than their animal victims. They were, however purified by the animals without holiness. In the NT the victim is the Lamb descended from heaven, the victim par excellence, whom the priests of this world could not sacrifice. Jesus, therefore, became both victim and offerer of his sacrifice. (Az II, 4 - 5).
2.3.3. Lamb and Shepherd
According to St. Ephrem, Christ is not only the Lamb, but also the Shepherd who became lamb for our atonement. He attributes to Jesus the true Lamb, a double messianic function of lamb and of shepherd. He was probably inspired by Jn 10, 1 - 18. The saint wants to bring out the voluntary vicarious death of the saviour who gives his life of his own accord. (Nativity II, 1 - 5)
The Lamb - Shepherd image is seen also in Isa 40, 11; 49, 10; Rev 7, 17. Ephrem recognises the details of the slaughter of the paschal lamb in the crucifixion of Jesus. Having in mind the passion of Jesus, Ephrem says that in Nisan the wolves ragged against the shepherd who became a sheep. The shepherd changed himself into a sheep and then killed itself for the wolves who, having eaten it, were transformed into sheep.
2.3.4. The Lamb of the Pascha
Jesus was destined from the very beginning to be the lamb of the pascha. John the Baptist testified to this truth. (Jn 1, 29). The Jews did not, however, wish that he become the paschal lamb. Ephrem recognises in the crucifixion of Jesus the details of the slaughter of the paschal lamb and establishes the fulfilment of the type in him. The piercing of Jesus’ hands and legs, lifting him on the cross, all these details are seen by Ephrem in the light of the paschal prescription of Ex 12 which was followed by the Jews in their Pesah sacrifice of later years as well. Thus the type was fulfilled in the reality.
2.3.5. The Lamb’s saving Blood
The blood of the Passover lamb saved the Israelites. The blood of the spotless lamb appeased the height and depth, says Ephrem. (Az. II, 6). Likewise the blood of Christ saved the new Israel from death. certainly the blood of Christ is far superior to that of the Paschal lamb. It has the hidden perfume of life. The blood of this spotless lamb reconciles heaven and earth. The sacrifice of the true Paschal Lamb and the consequence shedding of its blood, inaugurates the new economy of salvation. It brought salvation to all nations. (cf. Az XXI).
2.4. PASCHAL MYSTERY: REALISATION IN THE CHURCH
Paschal mystery of Christ has three dimensions namely, the past, the present and the future. In the paschal mystery of Christ we remember his passion, death, burial, victorious resurrection, ascension and exaltation at the right hand to his Father. It belongs to the past. In the dimension of the present the paschal mystery is lived in the church in union with Christ and in the course of history until the end of times when the great pasch will take place. The pasch of Christ will find its perfection in the third stage i.e., in the parousia.
The paschal mystery in its actual eschatological present state in which the past and the future meet is fully realised only in Christ. Today Christians are partly in the eschatological era by their contact with Christ through faith and sacraments of which the Eucharist is the centre. The Eucharist, therefore, is rightly called the pasch in which the fulfilled paschal mystery is sacramentally celebrated. For Ephrem, Eucharist is the continuation of the last supper and of the sacrifice of Calvary. In it Christ, the true Paschal Lamb becomes the true Unleavened Bread. The Eucharistic sacrifice abolished all the OT Sacrifices.
2.4.1. The Symbol and the Truth
Ephrem is fully aware that the type is in the OT and the reality is in the Church. if the type sanctified the people, the truth will do so much more to the nations. The paschal lamb, the unleavened bread, the manna and the quail were all signs of the truth that was to come in the future, viz., the Eucharist.
In Ephrem’s thought the bread and wine are identical with that of the last supper. Making use of typology Ephrem establishes the connection between the paschal symbols of the OT the their truth fulfilled in the last supper, on the cross and in the Holy Eucharist of the Church.
2.4.2. Abolition through Fulfilment
Fulfilling the OT types, in the Eucharist Christ abolished the OT priesthood and sacrifices. In the Eucharist he superseded the priesthood Melchizedech, who offered bread and wine. Hence neither blood-sacrifices nor the offerings have any more place in the new Economy.
Ephrem sees the cessation of the OT priesthood symbolised in the tearing of the rob of Caiphas, the high priest (Mk 14, 63) and in the tearing of the temple veil (Mt 27, 51) (Cruc. IV, 12).
The Eucharistic sacrifice abolished not only the sacrifice of the OT, but also those of the gentiles, who had offered animals and even their children to their gods in order to nourish them and to sprinkled their idols with animal blood. The son of God, however, became food for us and gave us his Blood to drink and became a perfect victim to reconcile us with the Father.
Ephrem specifies the difference between the sacrifice offered by the gentiles and the Christian Eucharistic sacrifice. The former were offered to placate gods, whereas the latter is offered by the son of God himself, who became the perfect victim for mankind to reconcile the human race with God and to nourish it spiritually. For convincing us the superiority and sacredness of the Eucharist, our holy Doctor compares the unleavened the bread of the Jewish Pesah to the drug to death, whereas the Eucharist is the medicine of life.
2.4.3. The True Paschal Bread
The true unleavened bread is given to us in the Eucharistic sacrifice, mainly the Eucharistic sacrifice of the church. It belongs to an entirely new sphere and its effects are far reaching.
2.4.3.1. The Spiritual Bread
St. Ephrem describes the entire human life into three stages, viz., from Eden to Zion, from Zion to Holy church and from church to the kingdom. We are now at the third stage, i.e., from the church to the kingdom in which he is given life through the Eucharist. He is destined to enter paradise. It is the Eucharistic spiritual bread that enables him to re enter paradise. (Az XVII, 8 - 9). In order to enter heaven one has to be heavenly. Elsewhere Ephrem says that the bread is spiritual as its giver and it gives life to the spiritual ones. (Nativity IV, 97).
2.4.3.2. The Medicine of Life
By the blessing of our Lord at the last supper the bread became the medicine of life, says St. Ephrem. According to him the Christian is baptised with the Holy Spirit and is nourished by the medicine of life. (CN 46, 8). Besides, the Eucharistic bread grants us real freedom, remitting our sins and cancelling the bond of our debts.
2.4.3.3. The Spirit Hidden in the Bread
the saint clearly sees the work of the Holy Spirit in the Eucharist just as in the incarnation and in the baptism of Jesus. It is a continuation of the incarnation. The same Holy spirit is at work in both mysteries. The spirit is at work in the living bread. Through the Eucharist we achieve a profound union with the risen Christ. The Eucharist thus assures us of a permanent and active presence of Christ in the church. It prepares us for the glorious coming of the Lord.
CONCLUSION
St. Ephrem’s paschal theology is centred on the Holy Eucharist. His vision of the Eucharist is very realistic. For him, Eucharist is the synthesis of the economy of salvation. It is not only a memorial, but also a representation to the last supper and Calvary. In it Christ becomes the true lamb and the true unleavened bread and gives himself to us as paschal food and drink, giving us life, strength and hope. Eucharist is therefore, not so much a symbol, as a reality active and present, which announces, prefigures and anticipates our future glory in the risen Christ. It makes us participate in the true pascha, the ultimate goal of which is our perfect liberation leading us into paradise and enabling us to enjoy the Eternal Pascha with Christ.
1.1. Some Biographical Notes
St Ephrem was born in 306 AD at Nisibis (now in Turkey). He was born probably of Christian parents. However according to Syriac version of his life, his father was a pagan priest. If it is true, he could have been converted later. It seems that he had a mystical bent and had an aversion to the world. And he seems to have retired to a mountain nearby where he received early education from an old Anchorite.
His intellectual career was influenced by three successive bishops, namely Mar Jacob, the first Bishop of Nisibis, Babu and Walgash. Ephrem was baptised probably only after catechumenate (CH.3,13) and probably he simultaneously joined Qyama- the covenant (Bar Qyama- one in minor orders, one vowed to religious life). He was later ordained Deacon (CH. 56,10).
St Ephrem knew probably little Greek and showed very little debt to Greek Philosophy. But the fundamental tenets of Platonic and Aristotelian Philosophy were not unknown to him.
According to tradition St. Ephrem accompanied Bishop Mar Jacob to take part in the council of Nicea (325). After the council Mar Jacob founded the school of Nisibis where Ephrem taught for about 30 (38 ?) years. After 30 years of teaching in Nisibis , he had to take refuge in Edessa in 363 with the entire population because his own city fell into the hands of the Persians after Julian’s death. There he lived 10 years and became one of the founders of the Edessians school. He died in 373 at Edessa. He was declared Doctor of the Church by Pope Benedict xv on 5th Oct. 1920 by the bull “Princepes Apostolorum” after 1547 years of his death.
As the theologian of the Syriac Church and the defender of orthodoxy , he is no way less important than Basil the Great. In Ephrem we have a good poet, a musician, an apologist a theologian and a preacher.
1.2. The Syriac Church At the time of St. Ephrem
The first Christians of Edessa were Jewish descendants. The Christianity that had spread in the entire Mediterranean basin remained here Jewish in structure until the second century. The Jewish community at Edessa had considerable influence on the thought and practices of this city. In the beginning Christians and Jews lived in easy terms. Both shared pagan cemeteries. They had the same local language (Aramaic) and used Targum as common scripture. The influence of the Jews paved the way to Christianity. Even in the same family there could have been Jews and Christians for a long time as the probation for the new faith took time.
The separation between the Christians and the Jews developed slowly. The Jews rejected the gospel and drove the Church out of the synagogue. Under the Roman hegemony Nisibis was free to communication with Palestine and Antioch. After 216 Edessa became under the responsibility of the Bishop of Antioch. Since then Greek influence was strong in the Syriac Church.
Both the Christians and Jews claimed to be the inheritors of the past. The Jewish antagonism made Christianity conscious of her own identity. The Church was in a dilemma to renounce the Jewish practices and to affirm his continuity with God’s alliance in O.T. She was poised between this Jewish past and non-Jewish present.
Jewish orthodoxy was a matter of practice rather than belief. The charges brought against the Christians in the early stages of evangelism were not concerned with the messianic claim as such, but with their challenge to the traditional nerve centers of the Jewish religion, namely the law and the temple. The Church however had to renounce the Jewish heritage and at the same time wished to affirm her continuity with God’s alliance in the O.T. Thus she remained poised between her Jewish past and non- Jewish present.
Already in the writings of Aphrahat we see the Jewish Christian antagonism. Probably his fellow Christians maintained Jewish practices like Sabbath, circumcision, eating the unleavened bread at the Passover etc. Possibly the Syriac Church observed the paschal celebration on the Jewish date. Ephrem’s writings reflects bitter hostility towards Judaism. Though he was aware the continuity of the Church with the Hebrews, he had little sympathy for them. The Syriac Church was separated from Judaism by the 4th century. One can observe in the Syriac Christianity of the time of Ephrem, a Semitic mentality linked with biblical and Jewish tradition.
1.3. Heresies
Ephrem lived in a pagan and Jewish environment. He had to fight the heterodox adversaries as manichaens, marceonites, the followers of Bardaisan and above all the Arians. Therefore he had to defend orthodoxy. His was a time of crises, with opposing dogmatic trends, for the Syriac Church. Ephrem was an ardent soul, straight, prudent, well balanced and profoundly zealous for God and his Church.
Arianism, with its much developed Greek categories made the Syriac authors defenceless, for this language not as well developed, and they were in the habit of thinking in pictorial symbols. In this situation Ephrem came into front with his hymns and sermons. He combated heresies mainly not by reasoning , but by symbolic imageries. He makes use of his rhetorical and poetical talents in order to defend the true faith against the heresies.
1.4. Literary activity of Ephrem
Ephrem’s writings can be classified into Commentaries on scriptures, Homilies, Hymns and Sermons. He was a prolific writer, who wrote prose and poetry. According to Sozomon, he wrote three million lines Most of his works were translated into Armenians, Coptic, Arabic, Ethiopic and Latin. He was a master of Syriac style. At the same time he was close to the life and thought of the ordinary man, to whom his writings were understandable. Moreover he lived at the golden age of Syriac poetry.
For Ephrem God and his redemptive plan and salvific work is a mystery. He tried to express the mysteries in symbols and parables rather than in philosophical categories. In him we have a poet theologian in the true sense of the word. He wrote Madrase (Doctrinal Hymns) and Memre (Poetical Homilies). His writings reflects his own faith. At the same time he was a true spokesman of the Syriac Church of the 4th cent.
1.5. Exegesis
The exegesis of the Syriac fathers and especially of Ephrem was oriented to the life of the people. Primary concern was not speculation, but life i.e., ecclesial and practical life of the Christians.
There are similarities between the Rabbinic exegesis and Ephremian exegesis. A closer study of Ephrem will reveal that his method is the Pauline and Christian typology.
Ephrem takes the Scriptural texts as literal and real. He is aware of the unity of the Bible. The O.T converges on the N.T. Both form one integral whole. One is explained in the light of the other. The same Spirit, the same Saviour, and the same Divine will are at work in both Testaments.
1.5.1. Typology
Typology as a method of exegesis may be defined as the establishment of historical connections between certain events persons and things in the O.T and similar events, persons and things in the N.T. It is grounded on a particular view of salvation history. It is essentially a historical interpretation based upon the continuity of God’s purpose throughout the salvation history. Ephrem makes use of typology in order to explain the link between the O.T and N.T and also between this world and the heavenly world.
1.5.2. Symbolism
In Ephrem’s vision God reveals Himself in a twofold manner: in Nature and in the Scripture. He finds perfect harmony between the two. For him everything in Scripture and in creation are God’s symbols, which speak of God.
As S. Brock observes symbols and types work for Ephrem on two separate planes; Horizontally, between the O.T and the N.T and vertically, between this world and the heavenly world; in both cases they serve to uncover something of the hidenness of mystery not yet fully revealed. All the symbols of the O.T focus on Christ, the Lord of symbols, who reveals their true meaning in the N.T. He is not worried about the order or logic of his symbols. For him all of them focus on Christ.
A symbol makes an abstract thing understandable in the concrete. By means of the typological exegesis Ephrem tries to fathom the mysteries of revelation, which are beyond human understanding.
2. PASCHAL THEOLOGY OF ST. EPHREM
2.1. Introduction
In Ephrem’s conception there are two Passovers, two Lambs and two Redemptions. The first Pesah and the first paschal lamb played their role in Egypt for the exodus of the Israelites. It was a type and the symbol of the second and the true Pesah which has been realised in Christ at the last supper and at Calvary and is being realised in the Eucharist of the Church. This is the reality and fulfilment. The redemptive fruit of the former paschal lamb was transitory and symbolic, whereas the salvific effects of the latter are permanent and real. There is still a third phase, in which the ‘sealing of the reward’ will be realised- namely in heaven. The type ‘raza’ was in Egypt; the reality Srara in the Church. the sealing of the reward hutam purcana will be in the kingdom. This verse reflects Ephrem’s conception of the continuous progress of man’s salvific process and of God’s working for it. The life of the Christian is oriented to the kingdom, just as Jesus was destined to return to the Father. So, too, is the Church to end up in its full realisation in the kingdom of heaven. Here we shall expose briefly the realization of the paschal mystery in three stages.
2.2. Paschal mystery-The Realisation at the Last Supper
2.2.1. The Church of the New Covenant
Under this title we shall see how the realization of the true paschal lamb took place at the last supper. The Upper Room is in Ephrem’s vision the first Church where the first sacrifice was offered by Christ. It is there that the two lambs met each other and the two paschs were celebrated; the old for the last time and the new for the first time. In the new pasch Christ is the true paschal lamb and also the true unleavened bread. For Ephrem last supper was not only the paschal meal, but also the sacrifice of Calvary in anticipation. Thus he sees the sacrificial and meal aspects of the Eucharist already in the last supper which Jesus celebrated with his disciples in the Cenacle.
2.2.1.1. The Cenacle; The first Church of Christ
In his theological reflection Ephrem finds the Cenacle blessed because the first Church in which Jesus became true Altar , Priest and victim. In Cruc. III,10 the unique position and value of the sacrificial Christ are very well illustrated. Ephrem takes Eucharist as perfect sacrifice. He finds in Christ all the elements needed for a perfect sacrifice. (cf. Heb 7,27). All the terms of sacrifice are realised in his sacrifice. He is the priest- Kahna, the bread-lahma, the cup of salvation-Kas purqana. He is the altar- Alta and lamb-Emra; the victim- debha and the offer-Dabuha; the priest- Kumra and the offered food- Matek lana. Ephrem puts no sacrificial element even the Altar, outside Christ. He points to the richness and uniqueness of Christ’ sacrifice in which all other sacrifice found their fulfilment. Ephrem looks back and contemplates the scene of the last supper in the light of his own Eucharistic experience in the Church.
In another place (Cruc. II,12, v-viii) Ephrem sees the Cenacle as the first sanctuary in which first sacrifice, Christ Himself was offered. It is a sacrifice that constitutes sanctuary. The Church becomes the sanctuary through the sacrifice of Christ in it. The Cenacle was the proto-Chuch, where the Eucharist sacrifice was offered by Christ for the first time. Ephrem cannot envisage the Church without the Eucharistic sacrifice.
In Cruc. III, 5 it is instructed that the last supper in the Cenacle at which the ‘Great’ covenant of the New Economy was sealed by the Blood of Christ (cf. Matt. 26,28; Mk 14,24; 1Cor 11,25). St. Ephrem finds a parallelism between the mount Sinai and the Cenacle. He compares the Cenacle to a mirror through which the whole world can be seen. He sees the O.T symbols of blood, sacrifice and covenant as if by reflection when he contemplates Christ in the Church.
2.2.1.2. The Two Lambs
In the Cenacle Ephrem sees two Lambs present; the paschal Lamb and the True Lamb. The Apostles stood between these two Lambs i.e., between the Symbol and the Truth. They witnessed the cessation of the symbol and the beginning of the Truth (Az. VI, 1-2). Here Ephrem contrasts Old and the New paschal lambs and describes the redemptive working of both. It is not, however, a mere play of words, but a presentation of the redemptive work in its progress, the culmination of which he sees at the last supper.
In another hymn Ephrem reflects that it is in the Cenacle that the two lambs, namely the paschal and the true lamb meet each other. There the symbol reached its goal and gave way to the Reality (Cruc. III,11).
The paschal lamb is transitory, whereas the True Lamb, the Lamb of God, lives for ever. In the Cenacle the former finishes its course and the latter takes up its role. The one stops where and when the other begins.
2.2.1.3. Two Paschs
The two Lambs correspond to the two Passovers namely that of the O.T and that of the N.T. According to Ephrem Passovers were intermingled in the Cenacle. In Cruc. III,2 our holy Doctor contrast the two Passovers; first is small and the second ins great, which is our Lord Himself (cf. I Cor 5,7). He observes the close connection of the two Passovers, but he is categorical about their distinction and disparity. The one is transitory because it is the symbol and the other is everlasting because it is the fulfilment.
Paschal lamb is a key for Ephrem to discover and to understand the true nature of redemption. He presents in Az. V, 15-18 the superiority and the uniqueness of the redemption of Christ, the true Paschal Lamb, comparing it with the saving act of the paschal lamb in Egypt.
Ephrem contrasts the two paschs and he affirms their distinction and disparity and shows the superiority and uniqueness of the Second Pascha (cf. Cruc. II,3). Paschal Lamb is the key for him to discover the nature of redemption brought by Christ.
2.2.2. Christ, the True Lamb becomes the True Unleavened Bread
Ephrem takes up the second important element of the Passover, namely the unleavened Bread (Patira) (Ex. 12,9). Identifying the unleavened bread with Christ’s body, he explains the sacrificial aspect and the meal aspect of the Eucharist, the New Passover.
2.2.2.1. The Unleavened Bread of New Paschal Sacrifice
Christ, the True Lamb breaks His Body which becomes the unleavened bread for his disciples. In Az. XIX 1-3 he explains the sacrificial mystery of the Eucharist and the mystery of the cross. Here he mentions about ‘breaking of body’ the verb break- klao-qsa which signifies sacrifice oneself, offer one’s whole person, divide oneself for others. Jesus ate the paschal and the unleavened bread; then his body i.e., He Himself became the true Lamb and the true unleavened bread and thus he took away the shade and gave the Truth.
According to St. Ephrem the Lamb and Eucharistic bread are identified in Christ. The breaking of bread and the mixing of the cup is the symbol of the sacrifice of His body and Blood, says St. Ephrem (Az. II, 7). For him the intimate connection between the Eucharistic sacrifice and the Cenacle and the sacrifice of Christ on the cross is important. The Eucharistic sacrifice was at once a symbol of the sacrifice of the cross and a reality. The former was an anticipation of the latter and is to be seen in the light of the latter’s force. For St. Ephrem the breaking of bread by Jesus in the Eucharistic sacrifice was real as his passion and death that followed it because of its certainty, immediacy and preview of the later (CN. 49,2).
The Last Supper was the prototype of the Eucharist. Christ’s words at the last supper were not an announcement but a decision. It was proleptic and anticipatory of the sacrifice that was as to follow. For the Christian also it is proleptic and anticipatory of the full experience of the risen Lord in heaven.
2.2.2.2. Christ the Unleavened Bread of the New Paschal Meal
Here Holy Doctor tries to illustrate the meal aspect of the Eucharist. The unleavened bread of the O.T. Pesah became obsolete through the bread which Jesus broke during the last supper. St. Ephrem has here Jn 6,35. 48. 50 in mind. This bread (Eucharist) is given us today by the Church. Through this new bread we are not only given life but are united with Christ in a profound manner. In Virg. 37, 2 St. Ephrem gives a vivid picture of what happens in the Eucharistic meal at the Cenacle and in the Church. Jesus becomes for us the bread of life. He adopts on unsurpassed means of communication which is intimate in human nature, namely the assimilation of food. St. Ephrem is very realistic about the profound union between Christ and Christian achieved through the Eucharist. His basis is Jn 6, 56; body into body, blood into blood communion of body and blood of person and life.
The Cenacle is the place where the reality took over the symbol. Here in the Cenacle, the first sanctuary ,where the great covenant was sealed. The Eucharistic sacrifice at the last supper made a future reality already presented, whereas the Eucharistic sacrifice in the Church makes a past reality present. According to St. Ephrem the Church and the Eucharist are inseparable. He finds the birth of the Church in the Cenacle where Jesus celebrated with his disciples the first The Eucharistic sacrifice and ate the First The Eucharistic meal.
2.3. PASCHAL MYSTERY - REALIZATION AT CALVARY
On the cross at Calvary Ephrem sees the culmination of the realization of Christ, the true Paschal Lamb. At Calvary He is the true Lamb and the priest; He is the Lamb and the shepherd. In Him victimhood and priesthood, victim and priest are identified.
2.3.1. Jesus the Lamb
Ephrem finds the types of the Lamb in the O.T. For him Abel is the first type of the true Lamb (Nat. 1,42). In Gen. 4,4, Ephrem sees a Lamb offered a Lamb. This lamb is the forerunner the lamb of Abraham (Gen 22,13) and of the Paschal Lamb of the exodus night (Ex 12) and of the Lamb of the God of Jn 1, 29. Abel who offered a Lamb becomes later himself a victim (Gen 4,4).
Jesus the true Lamb was symbolised in the Lamb cooped up from the exodus night (Ex 12, 33-36) and also by Moses who was shut in as a child for a three months. Both of them gave liberation to the Israelites. Jesus the true Lamb is the New liberator. Ephrem contemplates the seen of the visit of the shepherds to the new born saviour in Bethlehem a Lamb was offered to the true Lamb. According to the Saint, Bethlehem is blessed because in her the Lamb of God bleated for the first time. (Nat 25, 13).
2.3.2. Jesus: Priest and lamb
The priests and the Levites of the OT were not holy and so were insufficient to offer the true Lamb. Jesus Himself, therefore, became priest and high priest for sacrifice which put an end to all other sacrifice. In the OT priests were more valuable than their animal victims. They were, however purified by the animals without holiness. In the NT the victim is the Lamb descended from heaven, the victim par excellence, whom the priests of this world could not sacrifice. Jesus, therefore, became both victim and offerer of his sacrifice. (Az II, 4 - 5).
2.3.3. Lamb and Shepherd
According to St. Ephrem, Christ is not only the Lamb, but also the Shepherd who became lamb for our atonement. He attributes to Jesus the true Lamb, a double messianic function of lamb and of shepherd. He was probably inspired by Jn 10, 1 - 18. The saint wants to bring out the voluntary vicarious death of the saviour who gives his life of his own accord. (Nativity II, 1 - 5)
The Lamb - Shepherd image is seen also in Isa 40, 11; 49, 10; Rev 7, 17. Ephrem recognises the details of the slaughter of the paschal lamb in the crucifixion of Jesus. Having in mind the passion of Jesus, Ephrem says that in Nisan the wolves ragged against the shepherd who became a sheep. The shepherd changed himself into a sheep and then killed itself for the wolves who, having eaten it, were transformed into sheep.
2.3.4. The Lamb of the Pascha
Jesus was destined from the very beginning to be the lamb of the pascha. John the Baptist testified to this truth. (Jn 1, 29). The Jews did not, however, wish that he become the paschal lamb. Ephrem recognises in the crucifixion of Jesus the details of the slaughter of the paschal lamb and establishes the fulfilment of the type in him. The piercing of Jesus’ hands and legs, lifting him on the cross, all these details are seen by Ephrem in the light of the paschal prescription of Ex 12 which was followed by the Jews in their Pesah sacrifice of later years as well. Thus the type was fulfilled in the reality.
2.3.5. The Lamb’s saving Blood
The blood of the Passover lamb saved the Israelites. The blood of the spotless lamb appeased the height and depth, says Ephrem. (Az. II, 6). Likewise the blood of Christ saved the new Israel from death. certainly the blood of Christ is far superior to that of the Paschal lamb. It has the hidden perfume of life. The blood of this spotless lamb reconciles heaven and earth. The sacrifice of the true Paschal Lamb and the consequence shedding of its blood, inaugurates the new economy of salvation. It brought salvation to all nations. (cf. Az XXI).
2.4. PASCHAL MYSTERY: REALISATION IN THE CHURCH
Paschal mystery of Christ has three dimensions namely, the past, the present and the future. In the paschal mystery of Christ we remember his passion, death, burial, victorious resurrection, ascension and exaltation at the right hand to his Father. It belongs to the past. In the dimension of the present the paschal mystery is lived in the church in union with Christ and in the course of history until the end of times when the great pasch will take place. The pasch of Christ will find its perfection in the third stage i.e., in the parousia.
The paschal mystery in its actual eschatological present state in which the past and the future meet is fully realised only in Christ. Today Christians are partly in the eschatological era by their contact with Christ through faith and sacraments of which the Eucharist is the centre. The Eucharist, therefore, is rightly called the pasch in which the fulfilled paschal mystery is sacramentally celebrated. For Ephrem, Eucharist is the continuation of the last supper and of the sacrifice of Calvary. In it Christ, the true Paschal Lamb becomes the true Unleavened Bread. The Eucharistic sacrifice abolished all the OT Sacrifices.
2.4.1. The Symbol and the Truth
Ephrem is fully aware that the type is in the OT and the reality is in the Church. if the type sanctified the people, the truth will do so much more to the nations. The paschal lamb, the unleavened bread, the manna and the quail were all signs of the truth that was to come in the future, viz., the Eucharist.
In Ephrem’s thought the bread and wine are identical with that of the last supper. Making use of typology Ephrem establishes the connection between the paschal symbols of the OT the their truth fulfilled in the last supper, on the cross and in the Holy Eucharist of the Church.
2.4.2. Abolition through Fulfilment
Fulfilling the OT types, in the Eucharist Christ abolished the OT priesthood and sacrifices. In the Eucharist he superseded the priesthood Melchizedech, who offered bread and wine. Hence neither blood-sacrifices nor the offerings have any more place in the new Economy.
Ephrem sees the cessation of the OT priesthood symbolised in the tearing of the rob of Caiphas, the high priest (Mk 14, 63) and in the tearing of the temple veil (Mt 27, 51) (Cruc. IV, 12).
The Eucharistic sacrifice abolished not only the sacrifice of the OT, but also those of the gentiles, who had offered animals and even their children to their gods in order to nourish them and to sprinkled their idols with animal blood. The son of God, however, became food for us and gave us his Blood to drink and became a perfect victim to reconcile us with the Father.
Ephrem specifies the difference between the sacrifice offered by the gentiles and the Christian Eucharistic sacrifice. The former were offered to placate gods, whereas the latter is offered by the son of God himself, who became the perfect victim for mankind to reconcile the human race with God and to nourish it spiritually. For convincing us the superiority and sacredness of the Eucharist, our holy Doctor compares the unleavened the bread of the Jewish Pesah to the drug to death, whereas the Eucharist is the medicine of life.
2.4.3. The True Paschal Bread
The true unleavened bread is given to us in the Eucharistic sacrifice, mainly the Eucharistic sacrifice of the church. It belongs to an entirely new sphere and its effects are far reaching.
2.4.3.1. The Spiritual Bread
St. Ephrem describes the entire human life into three stages, viz., from Eden to Zion, from Zion to Holy church and from church to the kingdom. We are now at the third stage, i.e., from the church to the kingdom in which he is given life through the Eucharist. He is destined to enter paradise. It is the Eucharistic spiritual bread that enables him to re enter paradise. (Az XVII, 8 - 9). In order to enter heaven one has to be heavenly. Elsewhere Ephrem says that the bread is spiritual as its giver and it gives life to the spiritual ones. (Nativity IV, 97).
2.4.3.2. The Medicine of Life
By the blessing of our Lord at the last supper the bread became the medicine of life, says St. Ephrem. According to him the Christian is baptised with the Holy Spirit and is nourished by the medicine of life. (CN 46, 8). Besides, the Eucharistic bread grants us real freedom, remitting our sins and cancelling the bond of our debts.
2.4.3.3. The Spirit Hidden in the Bread
the saint clearly sees the work of the Holy Spirit in the Eucharist just as in the incarnation and in the baptism of Jesus. It is a continuation of the incarnation. The same Holy spirit is at work in both mysteries. The spirit is at work in the living bread. Through the Eucharist we achieve a profound union with the risen Christ. The Eucharist thus assures us of a permanent and active presence of Christ in the church. It prepares us for the glorious coming of the Lord.
CONCLUSION
St. Ephrem’s paschal theology is centred on the Holy Eucharist. His vision of the Eucharist is very realistic. For him, Eucharist is the synthesis of the economy of salvation. It is not only a memorial, but also a representation to the last supper and Calvary. In it Christ becomes the true lamb and the true unleavened bread and gives himself to us as paschal food and drink, giving us life, strength and hope. Eucharist is therefore, not so much a symbol, as a reality active and present, which announces, prefigures and anticipates our future glory in the risen Christ. It makes us participate in the true pascha, the ultimate goal of which is our perfect liberation leading us into paradise and enabling us to enjoy the Eternal Pascha with Christ.
Synoptic Presentation of Jesus: Expected Messiah, Fulfilment Of Scriptures And The Eternal Presence Of The Living God Amidst His Chosen People
INTRODUCTION
The first three gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) are known as Synoptics. For these are of same structures, present the work and ministry of Jesus from the same view point, portray gospel events from the same view point and have similarity of material. Synoptics shed light into different images of Christ, though here focus is given to Jesus as Expected Messiah, fulfilment of scriptures and the eternal presence of the living God amidst his chosen people. Here method of study is according to the order of the gospels.
1. GOSPEL OF MARK
Mark, the follower and interpreter of Peter wrote the gospel basing on what he heard from Peter, one of Jesus’ closest disciple, to a community undergoing persecution and failure. Papias put foreword this tradition that this gospel is based on the preaching of Peter and Mark would be John Mark, the co worker of Paul. (Acts 12, 12; 13, 5)
Mark starts his gospel thus, ‘The beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ, the son of God.’ Mark clearly tells that the things which he is about to explain is good news. The background of the word gospel is used in the background of Isa 40, 9; 52, 7. Isaiah proclaimed the good news of the coming of the deliverer from Babylon exile as Yahweh delivered Israel with mighty hands from the slavery of Egypt.
Isaiah informed the Israelites returned from exile about the redeemer Messiah. (Isa 61, 1 - 2). So Mark presents Jesus as the proclaimer of good news, the Messiah prophesied by Isaiah. Thus the good news foretold by prophet now fulfilled in Christ. This is explained in Mark 1, 1.
So Mk 1, 1 can be understood as following: The beginning of good news is Jesus son of God and Messiah. As a consequence, content of gospel is Jesus of Nazareth at the same time he is the promised Messiah and Son of God. This good news is described by Mark throughout the gospel.
1.1. Images of Jesus in Mark
Mark portrays Jesus as a Jewish Rabbi, eschatological prophet, a miracle worker and a Messiah.
1.1.1. Jewish Rabbi
Mark presents Jesus as a teacher or a Rabbi, who give authoritative pronouncements about the law. It is marked by newness and superiority in teaching. (Mk 1, 21 - 22). People were amazed at his teachings. (Mk 1, 22; 6, 2; 10, 26; 11, 18).
1.1.2. Eschatological prophet
Jesus proclaimed that the kingdom of God was about to arrive (Mk 1, 14 - 15). Not only that he chooses disciples for spreading the word (3, 14 -= 15). In the eschatological discourse (Mk 13) he predicts the events leading up to the establishment of the kingdom.
1.1.3. Miracle worker
Mark presents Jesus as a miracle worker. The miracles serve to confirm his preaching. They are closely connected.
1.1.4. Messiah
Above all Mark wants to present Jesus as the Messiah (Mk 1, 1). In depicting Jesus as the Messiah Mark used three main titles: Christ, Son of God and Son of Man.
1.1.4.1. Christ
The Greek term Christos translates the Hebrew Messiah which means ‘the anointed one’. One tradition understood this to mean anointed with the spirit of God (Isa 11, 1-2). That tradition appears in Mark. The descent of the Spirit at baptism identifies him as the anointed one (Mk 1, 10).
1.1.4.2. Son of God
Jewish scriptures refers to the Davidic king as God’s son because the king was seen as the representative of the national God. (2 Sam 7, 14; Ps 2, 7). Later Jewish scriptures called Messiah, Son of God without implying that he was more than human. (Ezra 7, 28 - 29). For Mark Jesus becomes son of God at the same time he becomes messiah: when he is anointed with the Spirit of God. He is thus the son of God in the sense that he has spirit of God and fulfils a special role as the anointed one or Messiah.
1.1.4.3. One like son of man
Jesus uses this title son of man for himself. (Mk 13, 26; 14, 26). It may have its origin in Dan 7, 13.
1.1.4.4. Son of David
As Jesus approaches Jerusalem certain characters in the story hail him as the Davidic king. A blind man calls him son of David (Mk 10, 47 - 48) and others see his entrance into Jerusalem as the coming of David’s kingdom. (Mk 11, 10). Yet Jesus later tells Christ is not the son of David. (Mk 12, 35 - 37).
1.1.5. Messiaship: Three Stages
In presenting Jesus as the Messiah Mark divides his messiaship into three stages: secret messiah, suffering Messiah and coming Messiah.
1.1.5.1. The Secret Messiah
1.1.5.1.1. Prohibition to Demons and Disciples
In 1, 1 Mark tells Jesus is the Christ, the son of God. But many times the question arises who is this man or who Jesus is? (2, 7; 6, 3; 6, 14 - 16; 8, 27 - 29). Interesting thing is that Jesus does not want people to know this who he is. He forbids demons not to reveal him(Mk 1, 25; 1, 34; 3, 11 - 12). Disciples’ recognition and culmination is expressed in Peter’s confession ‘You are the Christ’. (Mk 8, 29). Jesus prohibits them not to tell anybody.(Mk j8, 27 - 30). Such prohibitions make what is known as Messianic secrecy.
1.1.5.1.2. Other Features of Secrecy
Jesus prohibiting people from telling about the miracle he performed. (Mk 1, 43 - 45; 5, 43; 7, 36; 8, 26). In some passages Jesus seeks privacy from the crowd. (3, 20; 6, 31 - 32; 9, 30). Marcan interpretation of Jesus’ parables as secrets that Jesus explained only to the disciples. (4, 10 - 12, 33 - 34).
As Jesus enters Jerusalem for his final conflict, hints concerning the secrets of his identity begins to appear. Jesus rides into Jerusalem on a donkey fulfilling a prophecy about Jerusalem’s coming king. (Mk 11, 1 - 11; Cf. Zech 9, 9). In a parable he hints he is the son of God. (Mk 12, 6). To his disciples he speaks of God and himself as the Father and the Son. (Mk 13, 32). Finally as Jesus goes on trail for his life before the high priest he reveals the secret openly that he is the Christ, the son of God. (Mk 14, 61 - 62). Afterward as Jesus dies on the cross, a Roman centurion comes to the same conclusion: ‘Truly this man was God’s son’. (Mk 15, 39).
1.1.5.2. The suffering Messiah
In Mark’s presentation the secret Messiah becomes the suffering Messiah. Though Mark calls Jesus ‘Christ’, Jesus did not perform any functions that Jews traditionally associated with the Messiah. He did not become a king and ruled over Israel or he did not drive out enemies (Romans) from Israel; but he was crucified by them. Thus Jesus did not look the Messiah expected by the Jews. But Mark defends Jesus as Messiah in several ways.
1.1.5.2.1. Crucifixion: Conscious Choice
Firstly, Mark presents crucifixion as the result of a conscious choice on Jesus’ part. He predicts it thrice (8, 31; 9, 30 - 32; 10, 32 - 34). He knows who will betray him and disciples would deny and abandon him. (Mk 14). Thus Jesus appears as the master of his fate.
1.1.5.2.2. Crucifixion: Part of God’s Plan
Secondly mark presents crucifixion as the part of plan ordained by God. His suffering was predicted in the scripture. (Mk 9, 12; 14, 21). Jesus’ death is presented as vicarious atonement. Early church interpret the crucifixion in the light of scriptures and brought into light the idea of a suffering Messiah.
1.1.5.2.3. Resurrection: Vindication of Messianic Status
Thirdly Mark presents Jesus’ resurrection as the vindication of his messianic status. He rose and ascended into heaven to be enthroned as king at the right hand of God. (Mk 14, 62).
1.1.5.3. The coming Messiah
For Mark suffering Messiah belong to the past and the future belong to the coming Messiah. Son of man would come in the clouds and gather the elect from the four ends of the earth. (Mk 13, 26 - 27). The early church expected Jesus would return in the very near future. (Mk 9, 1; 13, 24 - 27; 13, 30). Jesus’ prediction of returning is a common material to all synoptics. (Mk 13, 30 - 31; Mt 24, 34 - 35; Lk 21, 32 - 33). A further statement also occurs in all: ‘ Only the Father knows the time’. (Mk 13, 32; Mt 24, 36).
2. GOSPEL OF MATTHEW
The gospel of Matthew presents the story of Jesus form the perspective of Jewish Christianity. The author combines traditions from several different Jewish - Christian communities to present a portrait of Jesus as the fulfilment of Jewish scriptures. Fulfilment quotations occur in 1, 22 - 23; 2, 15; 2, 17 - 18; 2, 23; 4, 13 - 16; 8, 17; 12, 15 - 21 etc. Matthew quotes the scriptural text and applies it directly to the situation of the interpreter’s community. For E.g., Matthew quotes Hosea 11, 1 S(out of Egypt I have called my Son). Kin the original context of Hosea the verse referred to God bringing the nation of Israel out of Egypt. Matthew however interprets to mean that God brought Jesus out of Egypt. (Mt 2, 15). Matthew also quotes Isa 7, 14 and regarded the passage as a prediction of Jesus’ birth form a virgin (Mt 1, 23).
2.1. Matthew’s portrait of Jesus
It is similar to Mark’s as Christ the son of God, son of David etc. Matthew shows certain special emphases Jesus as the fulfilment of OT scripture and spiritually present with his people.
2.1.1. Jesus the Messiah of Israel
Matthew shows in various ways that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the OT and eagerly awaited by the Jewish people. He also depicts how Jesus tried to fulfil his messianic mission to his people.
2.1.2. Fulfilment of prophecy in Jesus
From the beginning the Christians interpreted the historical events of Jesus’ life in the light of OT prophecies.
It is the gospel of Matthew which gives the highest expression to this theological trend. Out of about 130 passages referring to the OT Testament 61 are quotations. Matthew is well versed the scriptures and he writes in a “biblical” style, alluding to them often. We shall understand Matthew only if we always keep in mind his constant recourse to the scriptures for revealing the mystery of Christ. Characteristic of Matthew are 11 OT quotations which are introduced by a stereotyped formula which emphatically states that the prophecy quoted has been fulfilled in the event of Jesus’ life narrated in the immediate context. The first of these “formula quotations” (Mt 1, 22 - 23) teaches that the prophecy of Isaiah (7, 14) quoted in V 23 is fulfilled in the virginal conception of Jesus by Mary. We read in the infancy narrative four more formula quotations (2, 6.15.17 - 18. 23), five in the narrative of the ministry (4, 14 - 16; 8, 17; 12, 17 - 21; 13, 35; 21, 4 - 5) and one in the passion narrative (27, 9 - 10). By thus stressing the fulfilment of OT prophecies in the events of Jesus’ life Matthew is teaching that Jesus is, indeed, the Messiah. His infancy, his ministry and his passion are stamped by the salvation historical will and plan of God.
2.1.3. Christological Titles
2.1.3.1. Christ
Matthew uses several Christological titles which bring out Jesus’ unique salvation historical significance and role. The title Christ is very prominent in Matthew. It is used five times in the infancy narrative (1, 1. 16. 17. 18; 2,4). In 11,2 Matthew significantly qualifies the works of Jesus narrated in the preceding chapters as “deeds of Christ”. In the Messianic confession of Peter (16, 16) and in the question of the high priest (26, 63) the title Christ is common to the synoptic tradition. We find Matthew introducing this title in a saying of Jesus in the apocalyptic discourse (24, 5. Compare Mk 15, 12) and in the mocking after the Jewish trial: “Prophesy to us, you Christ” (26, 68. Compare Mk 14, 65). Matthew 23, 10 is striking: “You have one master, the Christ”. In all these texts Christ is understood as “the coming one” promised by God through the prophets and awaited by Israel.
2.1.3.2. Son of David
The title ‘son of David’ is traditional (cf. Mk 10, 47.48; 12, 35 - 37). But Matthew emphasises it. Jesus’ genealogy is introduced: Joseph is called son of David and commanded to adopt the child of Mary into his family; ;Jesus thus becomes legally the son of David. People coming to Jesus praying for healing address him son of David. Only in Matthew the Canaanite woman cried: “Have mercy on us, son of David”. (15, 22). The two blind men of Galilee (9, 27) and of Jericho (20, 30 - 31)cried aloud, “Have mercy on us, son of David”. The crowd expressed their amazement at Jesus’ healing activity by asking, “can this be the son of David?” (12, 23). The acclamations of the crowd at Jesus’ Messianic entry into Jerusalem adds this title, “Hosanna to the son of David” (21, 9); it is repeated in the temple by the children (21, 15). By the use of this title Matthew is showing that Jesus is the Messiah promised in the OT as a great descendant of David (CF 2 Sam 7, 12; Isa 9, 6 - 7; 11, 1 - 5). Matthew, of course, does not present Jesus according to the popular notions of a political and military figure, but as the humble and peaceful king of Zech 9, 9 (Mt 21, 5).
2.1.3.3. Lord
In Matthew Lord (Kyrios) is the usual title by which disciples and the sick address Jesus; for it implies the real relationship of the disciples with him, and the faith of those who pray for healing. In some contexts the address, Kiyrie has a striking liturgical tone: “ Lord have mercy”, Kyrie eleison (15, 22; 17, 25; 20, 30, 31), “Lord save”, Kyrie sOsan (8, 25; 14, 30), :Lord help”, Kyrie boethei (15, 25). This liturgical coloration suggests that the address , “Lord”, has a theological meaning: Jesus is addressed as God is addressed in prayer with a liturgical invocation; it points to the divine majesty and authority of Jesus as the Messiah.
2.1.3.4. Son of God
The title son of God is the pre - eminent Christological title used 21 times in the first gospel. Matthew has taken over form the synoptic tradition several cases of the use of this title: in the narratives of the baptism 9 3, 17), of the transfiguration ( 17, 5), of the temptations, of the exorcism at Gadara (8, 29), of the parable of the wicked tenants (21, 37 - 38), of the question of the high priest at the Jewish trail (26, 63) and of the confession of the centurion at the moment of Jesus’ death (27, 54). The great thanksgiving by Jesus mentions “the son” thrice.
Matthew’s own use of this title is found in several texts peculiar to the first gospel. The flight into Egypt is interpreted by Matthew 2, 15 as the fulfilment of the prophetic text of Hosea 11, 1: “Out of Egypt have I called my Son”; thus Jesus is identified as the Son of God. In 14, 33 when Jesus came to his disciples walking on the sea they worshipped him saying, “Truly you are the Son of God.” The most sublime expression of Jesus’ identity is Peter’s messianic confession in 16, 16. “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God”. Jesus’ answer to Peter shows that his confession is not based on mere human ingenuity but on the revelation by Jesus’ heavenly Father. The correlation between the expressions, “Son of the living God” and “My Father who is in heaven” points to the intimate reciprocal relationship between Jesus and God. The Trinitarian baptismal formula in 28, 19 also shows the unique relationship between the Father and the Son. In the crucifixion scene of Matthew the mockers use the title Son of God to describe Jesus (27, 40, 43).
Since Jesus is revealed as the son of God in a unique and intimate way it is not surprising to find Jesus in Matthew repeatedly speaking of God as his heavenly Father.
2.1.4. Authority of the Messiah
Matthew shows Jesus, Messiah and Son of God, acting with authority and dignity. At the end of the sermon on the mount “the crowds were astonished at his teaching, for he taught them as one who had authority” (7, 28 - 29). The messianic authority of Jesus was manifested through his solemn teaching of his new law, repeatedly introduced by the formula, “you have heard that it was said, but I say to you…”, in the six antitheses of the sermon on the mount (5, 21 - 48). In 11, 27 Jesus declared: “all things have been delivered to me by my Father”. The most solemn revelation of Jesus’ authority is the word of the risen Lord: “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me” (28, 18). The Messiah fulfilled his mission with the divine authority entrusted to him by God. Whatever he said or did was charged with the authority of God himself.
To this sign of respect Matthew adds another: people worshipped Jesus. The wise men from the east (2, 2.8.11), people requesting healing (8, 2; 99, 18), disciples (14, 33), the mother of the sons of Zebedee (20, 20)and the disciples seeing the risen Lord (2817) worshipped him or prostrated before him; this way of acting suggests the majesty of Jesus and the reverence with which people dealt with him.
2.1.5. Mission of the Messiah
Jesus began his ministry after John the Baptist had finished his work of Messianic preparation (4, 12). According to Matthew Jesus made Capernaum in Galilee the centre of his ministry in fulfilment of the ancient promise of salvation given to the northern tribes by the prophet Isaiah 6, 1 - 2. Mt 4, 17 summarises Jesus’ preaching in Galilee in a weighty saying: “Repent, for the kingdom of Heaven is at hand.”
Matthew prefaces his account of Jesus’ ministry with an impressive summary: “And he went about all Galilee teaching in their synagogues and preaching the gospel of the Kingdom and healing every diseases and every infirmity among the people”. (4, 23). Teaching, preaching and healing are the characteristic works of the Messiah. The following chapters will illustrate in detail these messianic activities.
2.1.6. Emmanuel - God is with us
three passages in Matthew express the idea that Jesus is spiritually present with his people. In the birth narratives, Matthew gives Jesus a name from the Jewish scriptures: “Emmanuel”, meaning “God (is) with us”. (1, 23). In another passage, Jesus says, “where tow or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them.” (18, 20). And in the final verse of the book, Jesus assures his disciples, “I am with you always, to the end of the age” (28, 20).
3. GOSPEL OF LUKE
The gospel of Luke must be studied both as a Synoptic Gospel and as the first volume of a two-volume work called “Luke - Acts”. Unlike Matthew, Luke wrote for a gentile audience, trying to explain how Christianity became a primarily Gentile movement. More than any other gospel, it shows a concern for the underprivileged members of society.
3.1. Luke’s portrait of Jesus
Luke preserves essentially the same picture of Jesus found in Mark and Matthew: Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, the Son of Man. Other aspects of Luke’s portrayal are shared with Matthew, while still others are distinctive among the Synoptics.
3.1.1. Messiah
From the very question posed to the disciples who went Emmaus Jesus affirms that he is the Messiah. “Was it not necessary that the Messiah should suffer these things and then enter into the glory.” (Lk 24, 26). The meaning of the word Messiah is ‘anointed one’. Anointing was done to set apart people for the service and protection of people. In OT anointed ones are called Messiah. In Hebrew Scriptures the term referred to Kings. Later the term came to refer to one ideal king of the future. This application developed in the southern kingdom from the idea that God had promised king David an ever lasting dynasty, a line of kings that would always rule. (2 Sam 7, 12 - 14). So Israelites hoped for a king who would deliver from Roman Tyranny. In short, Jesus is the anointed Messiah, sent forth to provide salvation to humanity. This truth is proclaimed at the birth of Jesus. “To you is born this day in the city of David a saviour, who is the Messiah” (Lk 2, 11). In the beginning of the public ministry by quoting Isaiah Jesus proclaimed he is the anointed one of God. (Lk 4, 18). By the paschal mysteries Jesus became the Messiah. (Lk 24, 26). He is to appear again as the glorified Messiah and now he remains at the right hand of his father. (Acts 3, 19 - 21)
3.1.2. Fulfilment of Jewish Hope
Also like Matthew, Luke’s infancy narratives emphasises that Jesus is the fulfilment of Jewish hope, specifically, the fulfilment of God’s promises to David and Abraham. The angel Gabriel announce to Mary that Jesus is the heir promised to King David, ;an heir who would rule over Israel forever (Lk 1,32; Cf. 2 Sam 7, 12 - 16; Isa 9, 6 - 7). Mary’s song then celebrates Jesus’ birth as the fulfilment of God’s promise to Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation (Lk 1, 54 - 55). This promise included numerous descendants, a land , and blessing for both Israel and all the nations of the earth (Gen 12, 1 - 3). Both themes reappear in the prophecy of Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist: Jesus is the “Horn of salvation” from the line of David foretold by the Jewish prophets of God, the fulfilment of God’s oath to Abraham (Lk 1, 68 - 73).
3.1.3. Saviour and the Lord
Luke’s portrait of Jesus has several distinctive features as well, particularly his presentation of Jesus as “saviour” and “Lord”. Alone among the Synoptics, L8uke calls Jesus “saviour” (Lk 2, 11; Cf. Acts 5, 31; 13, 23). The Hebrew Scriptures reserved this term for God. (Eg., Isa 43, 11; Cf. Lk 1, 47). In Hellenistic culture of Luke’s time, it was used of gods and ‘divine men’, such as emperors. Luke is also the only Synoptic to describe the work accomplished by Jesus as “salvation” (Lk 1, 69. 71. 77; 19,9).
In Luke - Acts the title “Lord” occurs more often than any other title for Jesus, twice as often as “Christ”. Prior to Christianity, Jews used the term to refer to Yahweh. In Luke - Acts it refers sometimes to Yahweh, sometimes to Jesus. The word “Lord” is used by Luke to show the equality of Jesus to his Father. He also uses the word “Lord” with “Messiah”. (Lk 2, 11; Acts 2, 36). Like the title “Saviour”, it was used in the Hellenistic world to refer to gods and emperors.
4. A GENERAL ANLAYSIS OF THE SYNOPTIC PRESENTATION OF JESUS
4.1. Christ, the Messiah
the authors of NT, especially Matthew and Luke, frequently used OT texts to show that the Messiah had accomplished all that the prophets had announced as Jesus said to the disciples at Emmaus. It has been pointed out that the vision of the Messianism generally depended upon the same text in all the NT writings. This concordance showed that it went back to the origin. Yet a text chosen to express Christ’s messiaship allows to recognise in Christ most of the traits of Messiah elaborated in the OT, a dynastic messiah, suffering messiah, poor messiah, divine messiah and a priestly messiah.
4.1.1. Biblical references as proof for this
Mary’s virginal conception had been announced by Isaiah in the context of Davidic enthronement (Isa 7, 14; Mt 1, 23; Lk 1, 26 - 35).
Jesus accepted to be recognised as the king descended from David; once he even conformed in the transfiguration, to a rite of messianic investiture. But he wanted to fulfil a messianic prophesy presenting the humility of the Messiah (Lk 19, 28 - 38; Mt 17, 2 - 8; Zech 9, 9).
Jesus claimed the title Messiah (Jn 10, 22 - 38).
Jesus insinuated that the awaited Messiah was of a transcendent origin superior to Davidic origin.
To react against false of contemporaries concerning the Messiah Jesus assumed a title ‘ son of God’ and ambivalent formula that pointed to his humility while evoking his transcendence. (Mt 8, 20; 11, 19; 17, 9; 20, 28; 24, 30)
The miracle of loaves and fishes was a messianic repast for the multitude and hence Christ’s enthronement was sought (Jn 6, 1 - 15)
at the last supper Christ announced that his suffering messiaship mentioned by Zechariah would provoke the fall of the disciples. (Mt 26, 30 - 35 Cfr Zech 13, 7 - 9).
The interrogation of the high priest pertained to Christ’s Messiaship (Mt 26, 25 - 27)
When Peter came to confess his faith in Jesus’ messiaship Jesus suggested what its true character was to be: suffering and redeeming atonement. He thereby united his messiaship with that of the servant revealing a priestly nature in it. Luke and Mark contented themselves with a confession by Peter of Davidic messiaship (the anointed Christ) (Mt 16, 15 - 23; Mk 8, 27 - 33; Lk 9, 18 - 22; Mt 26, 28 Cfr. Isa 53, 12).
Then he has to enter into the glory of his kingdom, which is that of the Father; enthroned by the right hand of the Father, he would fully exercise his messiaship by sending forth the Holy Spirit. (Mt 13, 43; 16, 28; 25, 31).
For Mark Christ’s messianic spirit was manifested especially in his struggle against the impure spirit. (Mk 9, 14 - 19; 3, 22 - 30; 5, 2 - 13 etc.)
For Matthew Christ’s actions were Messianic in so far as they evoked the messianic spirit which respond upon the suffering servant.(Mt 12, 18 - 21).
Luke referred the messianic enthronement back to the fact of incarnation. It was thus finally Christ’s very divinity that guaranteed him his messiahship.
4.2. Christ the Emmanuel
Isaiah’s prophesy announcing the birth of Emmanuel was probably directed at Ezechias himself who was Achaz’s successor and who for a short time introduced into Israel an era of happiness and religious practice, resembling for many the messianic era. These hopes were soon disappointed and Isaiah’s prophesy underwent a second reading. First in the version of Septuagint stressing the virginal nature of birth, then in the NT applying the prophesy to Christ, although he did not receive the name Emmanuel.
4.2.1. Biblical References
the prophesy of Emmanuel came at a time when the king and the people were attempting to persuade Egypt to side with them against the Assyrians. Yahweh wanted the people to renounce this human covenant on behalf of the one covenant with God. God with us would suffice to give the victory. (Isa 7, 8; 8, 10; 30, 15; Jer 17, 5)
As often in the Bible a human being personified this will of God to be with his people; it would be the queen’s child. This child Ezechias, was to be God’s instrument for establishing the messianic kingdom. (Isa 7, 14).
Several years after this oracle, Micah projected the prophesy again into a messianic future, hence Isaiah’s prophesy was to go beyond Ezechias himself. (Mic 5, 2).
The true Emanuel Christ confirmed the prophesy by his virginal birth and the presence of God that he brought to the people. He would be the new instrument of the covenant which the church would prolong. (Mt 1, 21 - 23; Lk 1, 31).
Christ’s promise was to be with us until the end of time (Mt 28, 18 - 20).
4.3. Christ: Fulfilment of the OT
Christ fulfilled the scriptures does not only provide a material correspondence between the promises of OT and the person of Christ. Fulfilment means the sense given to the scriptures, the sense given to the history of the people. Fulfilment means equally the personalisation of the themes and the signs in the very being of Christ. He fulfilled the scriptures not only morally, but ontologically. Finally fulfilment was total. This last note appeared particularly when Jesus explained that the reason for his death was ‘so that the scriptures might be fulfilled’.
4.3.1. Biblical References
In the synagogue service a reading was held from the law (History of past) and another from the prophet (History of future). In his sermon Christ announced ‘today’ of the accomplishment (Lk 4, 16 - 22).
Jesus’ whole life was a ‘fulfilment of the scriptures’. Matthew sometimes indicates a fulfilment that is only material, but even this imperfect rendering reveals that the early community was very aware of the fact that it lived in the times of ‘fulfilment ‘ in the ‘last times’. (Mt 1, 22; 2, 5; 4, 14).
The idea of fulfilment was elaborated especially around the passion and resurrection (Jn 18, 9; Acts 4, 25 - 28; 8, 32 - 45)
finally it was in view of Christ and the church that the OT was written. (Jn 5, 39 - 47; 8, 56; Rom 15, 4; 4, 23 - 24).
The result is that only Christ and the church are able to interpret the scriptures because they fulfilled them. (2 Cor 3, 14 - 18).
The argument of the fulfilment of the scriptures in the person of Christ was very important in the early prediction. (Lk 24, 25 - 32; Acts 3, 18. 29; 8, 35)
another step: Christ fulfilled scriptures because he was their author, for he is the word of the Father, who spoke through the prophets (Jn 1, 8. 58)
For this reason the law and the prophets passed their authority onto Christ. (Mt 5, 18; Lk 16, 16; Rom 10, 4).
The ontological fulfilment of the Scriptures was accompanied by a moral one: Christ came to accomplish the will of the Father as it was expressed in the scriptures. (Mt 5, 17; Mk 10, 45)
In his turn the christian fulfils the law and the prophets by a justice which surpasses that of the Scribes and which is love. (Mt 5, 20; Mk 12, 28 - 31)
The fulfilment of history in Christ is precisely that which forms the nucleus of his mystery. (Eph 4, 4; Col 4, 3).
CONCLUSION
Mark, in his gospel, primarily tries to present before his readers that Jeusu is Christ, the Messiah, while Matthew presents Jesus as the new Moses, who perfects the OT scripture, together with the presentation of Jesus as Emmanuel, the ever living God with his people. Luke presents Jesus as a merciful and friend of the oppressed. He is the continuation and perfection of the OT. Thus synoptics present the same image of Jesus.
The first three gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) are known as Synoptics. For these are of same structures, present the work and ministry of Jesus from the same view point, portray gospel events from the same view point and have similarity of material. Synoptics shed light into different images of Christ, though here focus is given to Jesus as Expected Messiah, fulfilment of scriptures and the eternal presence of the living God amidst his chosen people. Here method of study is according to the order of the gospels.
1. GOSPEL OF MARK
Mark, the follower and interpreter of Peter wrote the gospel basing on what he heard from Peter, one of Jesus’ closest disciple, to a community undergoing persecution and failure. Papias put foreword this tradition that this gospel is based on the preaching of Peter and Mark would be John Mark, the co worker of Paul. (Acts 12, 12; 13, 5)
Mark starts his gospel thus, ‘The beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ, the son of God.’ Mark clearly tells that the things which he is about to explain is good news. The background of the word gospel is used in the background of Isa 40, 9; 52, 7. Isaiah proclaimed the good news of the coming of the deliverer from Babylon exile as Yahweh delivered Israel with mighty hands from the slavery of Egypt.
Isaiah informed the Israelites returned from exile about the redeemer Messiah. (Isa 61, 1 - 2). So Mark presents Jesus as the proclaimer of good news, the Messiah prophesied by Isaiah. Thus the good news foretold by prophet now fulfilled in Christ. This is explained in Mark 1, 1.
So Mk 1, 1 can be understood as following: The beginning of good news is Jesus son of God and Messiah. As a consequence, content of gospel is Jesus of Nazareth at the same time he is the promised Messiah and Son of God. This good news is described by Mark throughout the gospel.
1.1. Images of Jesus in Mark
Mark portrays Jesus as a Jewish Rabbi, eschatological prophet, a miracle worker and a Messiah.
1.1.1. Jewish Rabbi
Mark presents Jesus as a teacher or a Rabbi, who give authoritative pronouncements about the law. It is marked by newness and superiority in teaching. (Mk 1, 21 - 22). People were amazed at his teachings. (Mk 1, 22; 6, 2; 10, 26; 11, 18).
1.1.2. Eschatological prophet
Jesus proclaimed that the kingdom of God was about to arrive (Mk 1, 14 - 15). Not only that he chooses disciples for spreading the word (3, 14 -= 15). In the eschatological discourse (Mk 13) he predicts the events leading up to the establishment of the kingdom.
1.1.3. Miracle worker
Mark presents Jesus as a miracle worker. The miracles serve to confirm his preaching. They are closely connected.
1.1.4. Messiah
Above all Mark wants to present Jesus as the Messiah (Mk 1, 1). In depicting Jesus as the Messiah Mark used three main titles: Christ, Son of God and Son of Man.
1.1.4.1. Christ
The Greek term Christos translates the Hebrew Messiah which means ‘the anointed one’. One tradition understood this to mean anointed with the spirit of God (Isa 11, 1-2). That tradition appears in Mark. The descent of the Spirit at baptism identifies him as the anointed one (Mk 1, 10).
1.1.4.2. Son of God
Jewish scriptures refers to the Davidic king as God’s son because the king was seen as the representative of the national God. (2 Sam 7, 14; Ps 2, 7). Later Jewish scriptures called Messiah, Son of God without implying that he was more than human. (Ezra 7, 28 - 29). For Mark Jesus becomes son of God at the same time he becomes messiah: when he is anointed with the Spirit of God. He is thus the son of God in the sense that he has spirit of God and fulfils a special role as the anointed one or Messiah.
1.1.4.3. One like son of man
Jesus uses this title son of man for himself. (Mk 13, 26; 14, 26). It may have its origin in Dan 7, 13.
1.1.4.4. Son of David
As Jesus approaches Jerusalem certain characters in the story hail him as the Davidic king. A blind man calls him son of David (Mk 10, 47 - 48) and others see his entrance into Jerusalem as the coming of David’s kingdom. (Mk 11, 10). Yet Jesus later tells Christ is not the son of David. (Mk 12, 35 - 37).
1.1.5. Messiaship: Three Stages
In presenting Jesus as the Messiah Mark divides his messiaship into three stages: secret messiah, suffering Messiah and coming Messiah.
1.1.5.1. The Secret Messiah
1.1.5.1.1. Prohibition to Demons and Disciples
In 1, 1 Mark tells Jesus is the Christ, the son of God. But many times the question arises who is this man or who Jesus is? (2, 7; 6, 3; 6, 14 - 16; 8, 27 - 29). Interesting thing is that Jesus does not want people to know this who he is. He forbids demons not to reveal him(Mk 1, 25; 1, 34; 3, 11 - 12). Disciples’ recognition and culmination is expressed in Peter’s confession ‘You are the Christ’. (Mk 8, 29). Jesus prohibits them not to tell anybody.(Mk j8, 27 - 30). Such prohibitions make what is known as Messianic secrecy.
1.1.5.1.2. Other Features of Secrecy
Jesus prohibiting people from telling about the miracle he performed. (Mk 1, 43 - 45; 5, 43; 7, 36; 8, 26). In some passages Jesus seeks privacy from the crowd. (3, 20; 6, 31 - 32; 9, 30). Marcan interpretation of Jesus’ parables as secrets that Jesus explained only to the disciples. (4, 10 - 12, 33 - 34).
As Jesus enters Jerusalem for his final conflict, hints concerning the secrets of his identity begins to appear. Jesus rides into Jerusalem on a donkey fulfilling a prophecy about Jerusalem’s coming king. (Mk 11, 1 - 11; Cf. Zech 9, 9). In a parable he hints he is the son of God. (Mk 12, 6). To his disciples he speaks of God and himself as the Father and the Son. (Mk 13, 32). Finally as Jesus goes on trail for his life before the high priest he reveals the secret openly that he is the Christ, the son of God. (Mk 14, 61 - 62). Afterward as Jesus dies on the cross, a Roman centurion comes to the same conclusion: ‘Truly this man was God’s son’. (Mk 15, 39).
1.1.5.2. The suffering Messiah
In Mark’s presentation the secret Messiah becomes the suffering Messiah. Though Mark calls Jesus ‘Christ’, Jesus did not perform any functions that Jews traditionally associated with the Messiah. He did not become a king and ruled over Israel or he did not drive out enemies (Romans) from Israel; but he was crucified by them. Thus Jesus did not look the Messiah expected by the Jews. But Mark defends Jesus as Messiah in several ways.
1.1.5.2.1. Crucifixion: Conscious Choice
Firstly, Mark presents crucifixion as the result of a conscious choice on Jesus’ part. He predicts it thrice (8, 31; 9, 30 - 32; 10, 32 - 34). He knows who will betray him and disciples would deny and abandon him. (Mk 14). Thus Jesus appears as the master of his fate.
1.1.5.2.2. Crucifixion: Part of God’s Plan
Secondly mark presents crucifixion as the part of plan ordained by God. His suffering was predicted in the scripture. (Mk 9, 12; 14, 21). Jesus’ death is presented as vicarious atonement. Early church interpret the crucifixion in the light of scriptures and brought into light the idea of a suffering Messiah.
1.1.5.2.3. Resurrection: Vindication of Messianic Status
Thirdly Mark presents Jesus’ resurrection as the vindication of his messianic status. He rose and ascended into heaven to be enthroned as king at the right hand of God. (Mk 14, 62).
1.1.5.3. The coming Messiah
For Mark suffering Messiah belong to the past and the future belong to the coming Messiah. Son of man would come in the clouds and gather the elect from the four ends of the earth. (Mk 13, 26 - 27). The early church expected Jesus would return in the very near future. (Mk 9, 1; 13, 24 - 27; 13, 30). Jesus’ prediction of returning is a common material to all synoptics. (Mk 13, 30 - 31; Mt 24, 34 - 35; Lk 21, 32 - 33). A further statement also occurs in all: ‘ Only the Father knows the time’. (Mk 13, 32; Mt 24, 36).
2. GOSPEL OF MATTHEW
The gospel of Matthew presents the story of Jesus form the perspective of Jewish Christianity. The author combines traditions from several different Jewish - Christian communities to present a portrait of Jesus as the fulfilment of Jewish scriptures. Fulfilment quotations occur in 1, 22 - 23; 2, 15; 2, 17 - 18; 2, 23; 4, 13 - 16; 8, 17; 12, 15 - 21 etc. Matthew quotes the scriptural text and applies it directly to the situation of the interpreter’s community. For E.g., Matthew quotes Hosea 11, 1 S(out of Egypt I have called my Son). Kin the original context of Hosea the verse referred to God bringing the nation of Israel out of Egypt. Matthew however interprets to mean that God brought Jesus out of Egypt. (Mt 2, 15). Matthew also quotes Isa 7, 14 and regarded the passage as a prediction of Jesus’ birth form a virgin (Mt 1, 23).
2.1. Matthew’s portrait of Jesus
It is similar to Mark’s as Christ the son of God, son of David etc. Matthew shows certain special emphases Jesus as the fulfilment of OT scripture and spiritually present with his people.
2.1.1. Jesus the Messiah of Israel
Matthew shows in various ways that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the OT and eagerly awaited by the Jewish people. He also depicts how Jesus tried to fulfil his messianic mission to his people.
2.1.2. Fulfilment of prophecy in Jesus
From the beginning the Christians interpreted the historical events of Jesus’ life in the light of OT prophecies.
It is the gospel of Matthew which gives the highest expression to this theological trend. Out of about 130 passages referring to the OT Testament 61 are quotations. Matthew is well versed the scriptures and he writes in a “biblical” style, alluding to them often. We shall understand Matthew only if we always keep in mind his constant recourse to the scriptures for revealing the mystery of Christ. Characteristic of Matthew are 11 OT quotations which are introduced by a stereotyped formula which emphatically states that the prophecy quoted has been fulfilled in the event of Jesus’ life narrated in the immediate context. The first of these “formula quotations” (Mt 1, 22 - 23) teaches that the prophecy of Isaiah (7, 14) quoted in V 23 is fulfilled in the virginal conception of Jesus by Mary. We read in the infancy narrative four more formula quotations (2, 6.15.17 - 18. 23), five in the narrative of the ministry (4, 14 - 16; 8, 17; 12, 17 - 21; 13, 35; 21, 4 - 5) and one in the passion narrative (27, 9 - 10). By thus stressing the fulfilment of OT prophecies in the events of Jesus’ life Matthew is teaching that Jesus is, indeed, the Messiah. His infancy, his ministry and his passion are stamped by the salvation historical will and plan of God.
2.1.3. Christological Titles
2.1.3.1. Christ
Matthew uses several Christological titles which bring out Jesus’ unique salvation historical significance and role. The title Christ is very prominent in Matthew. It is used five times in the infancy narrative (1, 1. 16. 17. 18; 2,4). In 11,2 Matthew significantly qualifies the works of Jesus narrated in the preceding chapters as “deeds of Christ”. In the Messianic confession of Peter (16, 16) and in the question of the high priest (26, 63) the title Christ is common to the synoptic tradition. We find Matthew introducing this title in a saying of Jesus in the apocalyptic discourse (24, 5. Compare Mk 15, 12) and in the mocking after the Jewish trial: “Prophesy to us, you Christ” (26, 68. Compare Mk 14, 65). Matthew 23, 10 is striking: “You have one master, the Christ”. In all these texts Christ is understood as “the coming one” promised by God through the prophets and awaited by Israel.
2.1.3.2. Son of David
The title ‘son of David’ is traditional (cf. Mk 10, 47.48; 12, 35 - 37). But Matthew emphasises it. Jesus’ genealogy is introduced: Joseph is called son of David and commanded to adopt the child of Mary into his family; ;Jesus thus becomes legally the son of David. People coming to Jesus praying for healing address him son of David. Only in Matthew the Canaanite woman cried: “Have mercy on us, son of David”. (15, 22). The two blind men of Galilee (9, 27) and of Jericho (20, 30 - 31)cried aloud, “Have mercy on us, son of David”. The crowd expressed their amazement at Jesus’ healing activity by asking, “can this be the son of David?” (12, 23). The acclamations of the crowd at Jesus’ Messianic entry into Jerusalem adds this title, “Hosanna to the son of David” (21, 9); it is repeated in the temple by the children (21, 15). By the use of this title Matthew is showing that Jesus is the Messiah promised in the OT as a great descendant of David (CF 2 Sam 7, 12; Isa 9, 6 - 7; 11, 1 - 5). Matthew, of course, does not present Jesus according to the popular notions of a political and military figure, but as the humble and peaceful king of Zech 9, 9 (Mt 21, 5).
2.1.3.3. Lord
In Matthew Lord (Kyrios) is the usual title by which disciples and the sick address Jesus; for it implies the real relationship of the disciples with him, and the faith of those who pray for healing. In some contexts the address, Kiyrie has a striking liturgical tone: “ Lord have mercy”, Kyrie eleison (15, 22; 17, 25; 20, 30, 31), “Lord save”, Kyrie sOsan (8, 25; 14, 30), :Lord help”, Kyrie boethei (15, 25). This liturgical coloration suggests that the address , “Lord”, has a theological meaning: Jesus is addressed as God is addressed in prayer with a liturgical invocation; it points to the divine majesty and authority of Jesus as the Messiah.
2.1.3.4. Son of God
The title son of God is the pre - eminent Christological title used 21 times in the first gospel. Matthew has taken over form the synoptic tradition several cases of the use of this title: in the narratives of the baptism 9 3, 17), of the transfiguration ( 17, 5), of the temptations, of the exorcism at Gadara (8, 29), of the parable of the wicked tenants (21, 37 - 38), of the question of the high priest at the Jewish trail (26, 63) and of the confession of the centurion at the moment of Jesus’ death (27, 54). The great thanksgiving by Jesus mentions “the son” thrice.
Matthew’s own use of this title is found in several texts peculiar to the first gospel. The flight into Egypt is interpreted by Matthew 2, 15 as the fulfilment of the prophetic text of Hosea 11, 1: “Out of Egypt have I called my Son”; thus Jesus is identified as the Son of God. In 14, 33 when Jesus came to his disciples walking on the sea they worshipped him saying, “Truly you are the Son of God.” The most sublime expression of Jesus’ identity is Peter’s messianic confession in 16, 16. “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God”. Jesus’ answer to Peter shows that his confession is not based on mere human ingenuity but on the revelation by Jesus’ heavenly Father. The correlation between the expressions, “Son of the living God” and “My Father who is in heaven” points to the intimate reciprocal relationship between Jesus and God. The Trinitarian baptismal formula in 28, 19 also shows the unique relationship between the Father and the Son. In the crucifixion scene of Matthew the mockers use the title Son of God to describe Jesus (27, 40, 43).
Since Jesus is revealed as the son of God in a unique and intimate way it is not surprising to find Jesus in Matthew repeatedly speaking of God as his heavenly Father.
2.1.4. Authority of the Messiah
Matthew shows Jesus, Messiah and Son of God, acting with authority and dignity. At the end of the sermon on the mount “the crowds were astonished at his teaching, for he taught them as one who had authority” (7, 28 - 29). The messianic authority of Jesus was manifested through his solemn teaching of his new law, repeatedly introduced by the formula, “you have heard that it was said, but I say to you…”, in the six antitheses of the sermon on the mount (5, 21 - 48). In 11, 27 Jesus declared: “all things have been delivered to me by my Father”. The most solemn revelation of Jesus’ authority is the word of the risen Lord: “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me” (28, 18). The Messiah fulfilled his mission with the divine authority entrusted to him by God. Whatever he said or did was charged with the authority of God himself.
To this sign of respect Matthew adds another: people worshipped Jesus. The wise men from the east (2, 2.8.11), people requesting healing (8, 2; 99, 18), disciples (14, 33), the mother of the sons of Zebedee (20, 20)and the disciples seeing the risen Lord (2817) worshipped him or prostrated before him; this way of acting suggests the majesty of Jesus and the reverence with which people dealt with him.
2.1.5. Mission of the Messiah
Jesus began his ministry after John the Baptist had finished his work of Messianic preparation (4, 12). According to Matthew Jesus made Capernaum in Galilee the centre of his ministry in fulfilment of the ancient promise of salvation given to the northern tribes by the prophet Isaiah 6, 1 - 2. Mt 4, 17 summarises Jesus’ preaching in Galilee in a weighty saying: “Repent, for the kingdom of Heaven is at hand.”
Matthew prefaces his account of Jesus’ ministry with an impressive summary: “And he went about all Galilee teaching in their synagogues and preaching the gospel of the Kingdom and healing every diseases and every infirmity among the people”. (4, 23). Teaching, preaching and healing are the characteristic works of the Messiah. The following chapters will illustrate in detail these messianic activities.
2.1.6. Emmanuel - God is with us
three passages in Matthew express the idea that Jesus is spiritually present with his people. In the birth narratives, Matthew gives Jesus a name from the Jewish scriptures: “Emmanuel”, meaning “God (is) with us”. (1, 23). In another passage, Jesus says, “where tow or three are gathered in my name, there I am in the midst of them.” (18, 20). And in the final verse of the book, Jesus assures his disciples, “I am with you always, to the end of the age” (28, 20).
3. GOSPEL OF LUKE
The gospel of Luke must be studied both as a Synoptic Gospel and as the first volume of a two-volume work called “Luke - Acts”. Unlike Matthew, Luke wrote for a gentile audience, trying to explain how Christianity became a primarily Gentile movement. More than any other gospel, it shows a concern for the underprivileged members of society.
3.1. Luke’s portrait of Jesus
Luke preserves essentially the same picture of Jesus found in Mark and Matthew: Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, the Son of Man. Other aspects of Luke’s portrayal are shared with Matthew, while still others are distinctive among the Synoptics.
3.1.1. Messiah
From the very question posed to the disciples who went Emmaus Jesus affirms that he is the Messiah. “Was it not necessary that the Messiah should suffer these things and then enter into the glory.” (Lk 24, 26). The meaning of the word Messiah is ‘anointed one’. Anointing was done to set apart people for the service and protection of people. In OT anointed ones are called Messiah. In Hebrew Scriptures the term referred to Kings. Later the term came to refer to one ideal king of the future. This application developed in the southern kingdom from the idea that God had promised king David an ever lasting dynasty, a line of kings that would always rule. (2 Sam 7, 12 - 14). So Israelites hoped for a king who would deliver from Roman Tyranny. In short, Jesus is the anointed Messiah, sent forth to provide salvation to humanity. This truth is proclaimed at the birth of Jesus. “To you is born this day in the city of David a saviour, who is the Messiah” (Lk 2, 11). In the beginning of the public ministry by quoting Isaiah Jesus proclaimed he is the anointed one of God. (Lk 4, 18). By the paschal mysteries Jesus became the Messiah. (Lk 24, 26). He is to appear again as the glorified Messiah and now he remains at the right hand of his father. (Acts 3, 19 - 21)
3.1.2. Fulfilment of Jewish Hope
Also like Matthew, Luke’s infancy narratives emphasises that Jesus is the fulfilment of Jewish hope, specifically, the fulfilment of God’s promises to David and Abraham. The angel Gabriel announce to Mary that Jesus is the heir promised to King David, ;an heir who would rule over Israel forever (Lk 1,32; Cf. 2 Sam 7, 12 - 16; Isa 9, 6 - 7). Mary’s song then celebrates Jesus’ birth as the fulfilment of God’s promise to Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation (Lk 1, 54 - 55). This promise included numerous descendants, a land , and blessing for both Israel and all the nations of the earth (Gen 12, 1 - 3). Both themes reappear in the prophecy of Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist: Jesus is the “Horn of salvation” from the line of David foretold by the Jewish prophets of God, the fulfilment of God’s oath to Abraham (Lk 1, 68 - 73).
3.1.3. Saviour and the Lord
Luke’s portrait of Jesus has several distinctive features as well, particularly his presentation of Jesus as “saviour” and “Lord”. Alone among the Synoptics, L8uke calls Jesus “saviour” (Lk 2, 11; Cf. Acts 5, 31; 13, 23). The Hebrew Scriptures reserved this term for God. (Eg., Isa 43, 11; Cf. Lk 1, 47). In Hellenistic culture of Luke’s time, it was used of gods and ‘divine men’, such as emperors. Luke is also the only Synoptic to describe the work accomplished by Jesus as “salvation” (Lk 1, 69. 71. 77; 19,9).
In Luke - Acts the title “Lord” occurs more often than any other title for Jesus, twice as often as “Christ”. Prior to Christianity, Jews used the term to refer to Yahweh. In Luke - Acts it refers sometimes to Yahweh, sometimes to Jesus. The word “Lord” is used by Luke to show the equality of Jesus to his Father. He also uses the word “Lord” with “Messiah”. (Lk 2, 11; Acts 2, 36). Like the title “Saviour”, it was used in the Hellenistic world to refer to gods and emperors.
4. A GENERAL ANLAYSIS OF THE SYNOPTIC PRESENTATION OF JESUS
4.1. Christ, the Messiah
the authors of NT, especially Matthew and Luke, frequently used OT texts to show that the Messiah had accomplished all that the prophets had announced as Jesus said to the disciples at Emmaus. It has been pointed out that the vision of the Messianism generally depended upon the same text in all the NT writings. This concordance showed that it went back to the origin. Yet a text chosen to express Christ’s messiaship allows to recognise in Christ most of the traits of Messiah elaborated in the OT, a dynastic messiah, suffering messiah, poor messiah, divine messiah and a priestly messiah.
4.1.1. Biblical references as proof for this
Mary’s virginal conception had been announced by Isaiah in the context of Davidic enthronement (Isa 7, 14; Mt 1, 23; Lk 1, 26 - 35).
Jesus accepted to be recognised as the king descended from David; once he even conformed in the transfiguration, to a rite of messianic investiture. But he wanted to fulfil a messianic prophesy presenting the humility of the Messiah (Lk 19, 28 - 38; Mt 17, 2 - 8; Zech 9, 9).
Jesus claimed the title Messiah (Jn 10, 22 - 38).
Jesus insinuated that the awaited Messiah was of a transcendent origin superior to Davidic origin.
To react against false of contemporaries concerning the Messiah Jesus assumed a title ‘ son of God’ and ambivalent formula that pointed to his humility while evoking his transcendence. (Mt 8, 20; 11, 19; 17, 9; 20, 28; 24, 30)
The miracle of loaves and fishes was a messianic repast for the multitude and hence Christ’s enthronement was sought (Jn 6, 1 - 15)
at the last supper Christ announced that his suffering messiaship mentioned by Zechariah would provoke the fall of the disciples. (Mt 26, 30 - 35 Cfr Zech 13, 7 - 9).
The interrogation of the high priest pertained to Christ’s Messiaship (Mt 26, 25 - 27)
When Peter came to confess his faith in Jesus’ messiaship Jesus suggested what its true character was to be: suffering and redeeming atonement. He thereby united his messiaship with that of the servant revealing a priestly nature in it. Luke and Mark contented themselves with a confession by Peter of Davidic messiaship (the anointed Christ) (Mt 16, 15 - 23; Mk 8, 27 - 33; Lk 9, 18 - 22; Mt 26, 28 Cfr. Isa 53, 12).
Then he has to enter into the glory of his kingdom, which is that of the Father; enthroned by the right hand of the Father, he would fully exercise his messiaship by sending forth the Holy Spirit. (Mt 13, 43; 16, 28; 25, 31).
For Mark Christ’s messianic spirit was manifested especially in his struggle against the impure spirit. (Mk 9, 14 - 19; 3, 22 - 30; 5, 2 - 13 etc.)
For Matthew Christ’s actions were Messianic in so far as they evoked the messianic spirit which respond upon the suffering servant.(Mt 12, 18 - 21).
Luke referred the messianic enthronement back to the fact of incarnation. It was thus finally Christ’s very divinity that guaranteed him his messiahship.
4.2. Christ the Emmanuel
Isaiah’s prophesy announcing the birth of Emmanuel was probably directed at Ezechias himself who was Achaz’s successor and who for a short time introduced into Israel an era of happiness and religious practice, resembling for many the messianic era. These hopes were soon disappointed and Isaiah’s prophesy underwent a second reading. First in the version of Septuagint stressing the virginal nature of birth, then in the NT applying the prophesy to Christ, although he did not receive the name Emmanuel.
4.2.1. Biblical References
the prophesy of Emmanuel came at a time when the king and the people were attempting to persuade Egypt to side with them against the Assyrians. Yahweh wanted the people to renounce this human covenant on behalf of the one covenant with God. God with us would suffice to give the victory. (Isa 7, 8; 8, 10; 30, 15; Jer 17, 5)
As often in the Bible a human being personified this will of God to be with his people; it would be the queen’s child. This child Ezechias, was to be God’s instrument for establishing the messianic kingdom. (Isa 7, 14).
Several years after this oracle, Micah projected the prophesy again into a messianic future, hence Isaiah’s prophesy was to go beyond Ezechias himself. (Mic 5, 2).
The true Emanuel Christ confirmed the prophesy by his virginal birth and the presence of God that he brought to the people. He would be the new instrument of the covenant which the church would prolong. (Mt 1, 21 - 23; Lk 1, 31).
Christ’s promise was to be with us until the end of time (Mt 28, 18 - 20).
4.3. Christ: Fulfilment of the OT
Christ fulfilled the scriptures does not only provide a material correspondence between the promises of OT and the person of Christ. Fulfilment means the sense given to the scriptures, the sense given to the history of the people. Fulfilment means equally the personalisation of the themes and the signs in the very being of Christ. He fulfilled the scriptures not only morally, but ontologically. Finally fulfilment was total. This last note appeared particularly when Jesus explained that the reason for his death was ‘so that the scriptures might be fulfilled’.
4.3.1. Biblical References
In the synagogue service a reading was held from the law (History of past) and another from the prophet (History of future). In his sermon Christ announced ‘today’ of the accomplishment (Lk 4, 16 - 22).
Jesus’ whole life was a ‘fulfilment of the scriptures’. Matthew sometimes indicates a fulfilment that is only material, but even this imperfect rendering reveals that the early community was very aware of the fact that it lived in the times of ‘fulfilment ‘ in the ‘last times’. (Mt 1, 22; 2, 5; 4, 14).
The idea of fulfilment was elaborated especially around the passion and resurrection (Jn 18, 9; Acts 4, 25 - 28; 8, 32 - 45)
finally it was in view of Christ and the church that the OT was written. (Jn 5, 39 - 47; 8, 56; Rom 15, 4; 4, 23 - 24).
The result is that only Christ and the church are able to interpret the scriptures because they fulfilled them. (2 Cor 3, 14 - 18).
The argument of the fulfilment of the scriptures in the person of Christ was very important in the early prediction. (Lk 24, 25 - 32; Acts 3, 18. 29; 8, 35)
another step: Christ fulfilled scriptures because he was their author, for he is the word of the Father, who spoke through the prophets (Jn 1, 8. 58)
For this reason the law and the prophets passed their authority onto Christ. (Mt 5, 18; Lk 16, 16; Rom 10, 4).
The ontological fulfilment of the Scriptures was accompanied by a moral one: Christ came to accomplish the will of the Father as it was expressed in the scriptures. (Mt 5, 17; Mk 10, 45)
In his turn the christian fulfils the law and the prophets by a justice which surpasses that of the Scribes and which is love. (Mt 5, 20; Mk 12, 28 - 31)
The fulfilment of history in Christ is precisely that which forms the nucleus of his mystery. (Eph 4, 4; Col 4, 3).
CONCLUSION
Mark, in his gospel, primarily tries to present before his readers that Jeusu is Christ, the Messiah, while Matthew presents Jesus as the new Moses, who perfects the OT scripture, together with the presentation of Jesus as Emmanuel, the ever living God with his people. Luke presents Jesus as a merciful and friend of the oppressed. He is the continuation and perfection of the OT. Thus synoptics present the same image of Jesus.
MISSIOLOGY - The history of the Church is the history of the mission
Outline of the Course
Introduction
General Problems of Mission or Missionary Fields
Theology of Mission of Vatican II (AG)
Mission and Missions
Evangelii Nuntiandi
Missionary perspectives of Syro Malabar Church
INTRODUCTION
Redemptoris Missio 16 says, “We are in a new missionary age. A new missionary advent has come.” The history of the Church is the history of the mission. History tells us how the Church carried out the mission and how she understood it –also the emphasis and deficiencies in the mission.
There are different stages in the evolution of the mission starting from the Apostles. The modern age of missionary activities began in the 16th century. It ended with Vatican II. We are in a new missionary age. So it is our duty to formulate a mission theology, the attitudes and methods to be carried out.
The word ‘mission’ is used for many things. It is a common word. It is not always related to propagation of the Word. Mission has become a major theme of reflection in all the Christian denominations.
Mission mission (Lt) Mittere = to send. But we use the word ‘mission’ to signify the propagation of the word of God.
In 1558, Jakob lanez (second Jesuit General) used the word to signify the work of Jesuits among the Maronite Christians in Lebenon = the act of proclamation.
Mission is an enterprise that is undertaken by somebody else’ initiative. Mission is always entrusted by somebody. It is that shall be given. Mission = sending someone to accomplish something. Jesus was the first missionary who was sent by the Father. A faithful is the missionary of Christ.
Missio Dei = Mission of God.
Missio Ecclesiae = Mission of the Church.
Missiology: Missio + Logos (Lt + Gk). Missiology is the systematic study of the evangelising activity of the Church, as well as the ways in which this activities are carried out. It is a scientific study of the missionary activities of the Church in which scientific discipline and missionary charism enrich each other.
AG II: the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature. All the Christians are missionaries. All that we study should have a missionary dimension, because we by nature are missionaries. Missiology is the heart of ecclesiology. Vatican II recommends systematic study of mission theology (AG 16) in the seminaries either as a part of ecclesiology or independently.
According to Karl Rahner Missiology is the self realisation of the Church. This is mission theology.
Missiology makes use of the findings of other theological subjects.
Missionary, in the traditional sense, is a person who is sent to a foreign place to preach gospel among the non Catholics. According to the new understanding Church is missionary, and therefore all are missionaries. Preach the gospel and implant the Church are the duties of the missionaries. The elements in the missionary activity, according to the old understanding, are the sender, the person sent, destination, objectives and motives. (Sender = the Church in a Christian country, especially, European countries; destination = to non Christian regions; objectives = to save the souls.)
Situation of the Mission at the end of the Council: New Trends affecting Missions
The crisis in Christian Missions: Christian mission in the late 60s facing a great crisis all over the world. Both internal and external difficulties weakened the missionary thrust of the Church.
Tracy Jones speaks of the colossal confusion in the Christian mission all over the world – both catholic and protestants.
By twentieth century Christianity is there all over the world.
The reasons of crisis:
1. The decline of colonial era. European colonialism and Christianity are intermingled. Western mission is another form of imperialism, says critics. Europeans were not giving Jesus and his gospel; they were trying to Europeanise Asia. “God and Gold, Church and State, Cross and Sword, Missionary and Soldier go hand in hand.” The motto for them is to conquer the land. The colonial system came to an end. There is no more supremacy of the west. National and cultural autonomy no more exists. Political domination of the west is also no more. People are suspicious of neo colonialism – both cultural and economic.
2. Phenomena of Dechristianisation: the number of practicing Christians is on the decline. There is no sense of dividing the world into sending Church and receiving countries. Christianity has been spread all over the world. Church is missionary all over the world.
3. Theological reasons:
a) Question of salvation outside the Church: Vatican II speaks of possibility of salvation outside the Catholic Church in other religions. (Church does not say ‘there is’ but ‘there is the possibility’. God’s revelation is not limited to the Catholic Church. LG16 – 17. even before the Council theologians like Danielou, H. De Lubac, Congar, Rahner etc. were holding this view. They developed a theology of religions in the theology of the Catholic Church. The catholic missionaries can no longer approach people of other faith with a view of saving their souls. This deteriorated the mission spirit.
b) There are theologians who hold the view that revelation is something personal. Words have to be interpreted in the light of the personal experience. They tried to identify the Christian words with a particular message. Interpret the word in the light of personal experience. People of other faith also are capable of receiving the word of God and interpret the word on the basis of their own personal experience in a (better) way in a (better) formula. So we cannot categorically say that ours is the better or only view.
c) Religious Freedom: Every individual is free to believe and free to belong to any religion. Church respects the freedom of individuals. Therefore today people don’t threaten or force others to join the Church. Even who are joining the Church are free to formulate the faith which they had received.
d) A new World Vision: a vision regarding the Word: Catholics no more considers the world as an enemy. World is not hostile to Christians now. Christians are involved more and more in the problems and trails of the world – to work for justice etc. GS gives a new theology of the world. The trails and problems of the world is that of the Church too. So we have to involve more and more in the affairs of the world. Formerly we were concerned only with preaching; we were not looking into the life of the people. Work for liberation, inculturation etc. also are considered as parts of evangelisation. This also weakened the interest of traditional mission.
e) Developments in Ecclesiology: new vision of the Church – Church is the universal sacrament of salvation. Church includes all who respond to God’s call . she has to identify herself with the poor and the oppressed. It is the duty of everybody to do missionary work. Church includes all those who believe in God. Vatican II says that Church has to put on the mantle of a suffering servant, rather than that of a triumphant ruler. Church is a spirit-led people. So everybody is a missionary. Missionary work is no more the privilege of a few people called missionaries. The missionary duty is one and the same for all; but the method they use may be different.
Formerly the success of missionary was counted on the basis of the number of new converts. But today catholicity is not understood on the basis of territory. Number and territory are not given much importance today.
4. Decline in the number of missionary vocations especially, in Europe. There is lack of true missionary spirit in the traditional Christian countries.
Vatican II says that Church is missionary. Vatican II has awakened an interest among the Christian missionaries and people.
What is Mission?
The concept of mission is often reduced to one or other dimensions of mission: E.g. Expansion of the Church, option for the poor, liberation, political freedom, social justice, development, dialogue and mutual enrichment etc.
Words do not have fixed meanings. It may change as time goes on or when the situation changes.
Paraphrases concerning Mission
Up to 17th century there were many paraphrases about mission:
Mission was understood by some as missionary works and missionary journeys. Acosta SJ in 1588 wrote, mission as journeys and undertakings carried out from town to town for the sake of the word of God. He was reflecting the mind of Ignatius Loyola.
Protestants of 17th century were having more concern for mission rather than the Catholics. They defined mission (Philip Nicholai, Johann Heinrich Etc.) as spreading the kingdom of Christ throughout the whole world. Philip Jakob Spener says that mission is the extension of the kingdom of God and promotion of glory of God and Christ.
Systematic paraphrasing came in a later period.
1. Mission is understood here as propagation of faith. (Propaganda Fidei). This congregation was established in 1622 July 22 by Pope Gregory XV. Vatican II changed the name to “Congregation for the Evangelisation of Peoples.” This congregation was established to control the political influence of Portugal and Spain in the so called mission countries. Because it was the time of Padroado. According to Pope Nicholas V. (1447 – 55), the newly founded world would be divided into Portuguese and Spanish countries for missionary works. The kings of these countries were in charge of missionary works in the newly found world. When this influence became too much Rome decided to establish a Congregation – propaganda Fidei, which has the right of missionary work all over the world. Thus Portuguese and Spanish Padroado was suppressed. According to the decree Propaganda Fidei is a papal institution for the propagation of faith in the whole world to preach gospel to all creatures, to gather the ignorant and the godless and to lead them to Christ and his Church. Propaganda’s attention was centred mainly on foreign missions. According to this, mission means ‘mission to the non Christian world’, only the foreign mission.
2. Mission as expansion of the kingdom: it is a Protestant idea, originally came from the Lutheran, named, Philip Nicholai. In his Rule of Christ (DE Reigno Christi) he put foreword a new theory concerning missions. He was convinced of the apostolic zeal or the preaching of the apostles. Through the preaching of the Apostles the gospel has come even up to India. He was also convinced of the zeal of the Catholic missionaries. He wanted to wipe away the influence of the Catholic missionaries. He said God wants to save everybody. This saving will of God is valid always and all over the world. What is this kingdom? The kingdom of God is identified with the Christian community (Church). Expansion of the kingdom means the expansion of the Church. As members of the Church we have the obligation of spreading and expanding the Church, according to him. (But today we cannot agree with this).
3. Mission as the Conversion of the Heathen: Bringing the good news to those people who do not yet know Christ or who have not yet heard the name of Jesus or those who have not acknowledged Jesus as saviour. Turn such people to Christ (convert to Christ). Proclamation must effect in the hearers a metanoia (conversion). They must experience Jesus and become children of God. Recognize Jesus as the centre of his life. It is not proselytizing, i.e., taking members from one group and making them members of another group.
Mission is certainly Christianising in theological sense, not in pure sociological sense. It is not changing one’s affiliation to one’s community. The important thing is membership in the kingdom of God and Christ. Membership in the Church does not guarantee this. Christ and his kingdom is not identical with the visible boundaries of the Church. We cannot identify the visible Church with the kingdom.
4. Mission as Process of founding new churches: St. Paul understood mission in this sense; Catholics also understood it in the same way. Church was considering from the very beginning, establishing new Christian communities. Multiplying new congregations was taken as the mission. In the catholic circle Louvein school of Missiology considered mission as establishing new Churches. This idea was over emphasised by them and less importance was given to proclamation of the gospel. In proper sense it is valid today also- establishing communities which are firmly rooted in their peoples – not simply a gathering of the new converts. It must have its own leaders and tradition and way of worship. Vatican II gives much importance to local Churches against the extreme centralisation of the Roman Church. Prior to Vatican II, emphasis was on centralisation. Founding of the new communities is theologically sound.
5. Mission as Reaching out (Contribution of Horst Burkle, Mission Theology): this idea of mission as reaching out is already found in the fathers. This means the universality of the gospel: Gospel taking root in every culture. It is not a question of expanding the boundaries, but Christianising people through gospel. A community that has no missionary out reaching programme cannot be able to sustain even its own members.
6. Mission as Herald Service: Herald is the messenger who proclaims the message of the one who has sent him to proclaim. 2 Tim 1, 11: St. Paul calls himself ‘the herald of good news’. Herald participates in the experience of the one who sent him. The Apostles were called to continue the mission in the name of Jesus. They were heralds of Jesus. The missionaries are heralds in the sense that they proclaim message of Christ given to them through the Church. Proclaiming something unique which is capable of even changing the world. The newness of the message of Christi is the criterion for its uniqueness.
All these dimensions are acceptable to the Church even today.
Mission Theology According to the Catholic Authors
We are living in a golden age of Missiology. There are a number of theological studies in mission. Vatican II says that study of mission must be included in the curriculum of seminaries and theological institutions.
As a theological discipline Missiology is only 100 years old. The first chair of Missiology was started in Edinburg in 1867 by the Protestants. Another chair in the University of Halle in 1869, held by Gustar Warneeh, who is called the father of mission theology.
From the Catholic side: Rogert Streit OMI, is the pioneer of catholic mission theology. (1875 – 1930). He was not a theologian, but he contributed much to the development of Catholic Missiology. He published a number of articles on this topic in Maria Immaculata. Later he started a movement for the scientific investigation of missionary apostolate. In 1907 he published his guiding principles of modern Missiology. He wanted missionary problems to be dealt with dogmatically, scripturally, historically and juridically. He was of the opinion that more importance must be given to missionary topics in seminaries and catholic institutes. A chair of Missiology must be started in a catholic university. He also suggested the publication of a scientific missionary review and the preparation of a bibliography. He himself started it. His work Bibliotheca Missionum. Seven volumes were published by 1930. Now there are more than that.
Joseph Schmidlin, who is called the founder of Catholic Missiology (1876 – 1944), was professor of Missiology in the university of Munster. In 1911 he started a Mission Review in Germany. He also started the university Missionary Movement. He has a number of books or Missiology. He is also known as the founder of the mission school of Munster. (The two schools of catholic mission theology are Munster School and Leuvein school. They developed Mission theology in different ways.) Schmidlin considered the non Christian world as the object of mission. We are sent to convert them. So their view is known as ‘theory of conversion’. According to them missionary action consists in proclamation, instruction, individual conversion and salvation of the souls. Through baptism the non Christians are received into the Church (when they are ready to accept Jesus). Thus small communities are formed. Later they are organised into an autonomous local Church. Later these churches would become a diocese. They insist very much on individual conversion. But they don’t neglect the establishment of the Church. For them proclamation and conversion are the first aims of missionary work. They are very much influenced by the Protestants.
He was identifying the visible Church with the kingdom of God. It is christocentric in its approach, i.e., conversion is to Christ. All over the world the non Christian religions are being disintegrated. He wanted Christianity to be established all over the world. (he considered European countries as possessors of culture.) he did not give importance to integral salvation, but concentrated only on salvation of the soul. The concept of mission that he gave was the concept of colonial mission. He was not bothered about political freedom and so on.
Louvain School: It was started by Lange SJ. It was developed by Pierre Charles SJ. They were critical of the Munster school. They started the idea of establishing the hierarchy- founding now native churches and winning of the souls of the non-Catholics. They insisted very much upon the establishment of the Church. Their theory is called theory of ‘planting the Church’ or ‘implanting the Church’. This theory is more ecclesial in its outlook. It is ecclesio centric, i.e., expanding the visible boundaries of the Church was the target of this school. (plantation Ecclesiae). They are not against conversion; but conversion is not the specific purpose of the Church.
Founding the Church is not held by scripture or the fathers. The protestants disliked this very much saying that this is a static concept. This overlooks the command of Christ. Gospel is to be preached no to the territories, but to the people and they bypass the salvation to non Christians, because they are not bothered about the non Christians this theory is a pre Vatican concept; a 19th century concept of the Church. But the catholic missiologists preferred this school to Munster school. Through mission Church is established in races and regions where the Church does not exist. Formation of hierarchy is more important, formation of the local clergy too is important. Once a local Church is established, conversion of the non Christian local people is the duty of the Church. They don’t exclude conversion and salvation of the souls, but these are not the specificity of mission. Among the theologians and Bishops of Vatican II there was divergence of opinion regarding these two schools.
Missionary Encyclicals
The encyclicals show the mind of the Church about the missionary activities.
1. Maximum Illud (Pope Benedict XV, 1919). This focuses on founding of the local churches. Pope wanted to have a revival of catholic mission, because all these were damaged by the first world war. He reminded the heads of the missions to be fatherly and gentle in their behaviour. They have to give due importance to the formation of local clergy. The missionaries have to avoid nationalism, they have to lead a holy life and study languages.
People in traditional Christian countries are to be missionary oriented. For the pope church is the kingdom of God. All the Christian faithful have to help the mission through prayer, personnel, and funds. In this document a negative approach is found. There is no awareness of social situations of the natives.
As a result of this missionary courses were started at propaganda College of Rome.
2. Rerum Ecclesiae (1926) of Pius XI: It insists very much on the formation of local clergy. Local vocation is to be fostered. Seminaries shall be set up for this purpose. He says, contemplative life among the missionaries must be fostered. There is the need of training of the catechists or the catechists are to be trained. Pope urges everyone to be zealous about the missionaries. He emphasises the importance of prayer in missionary activities. The missionary union of clergy is helpful for mission. The motivation of mission is love of God and love of neighbour. Missionary work means spreading the faith, establishing the Church and saving the soul.
3. Evangelii Precones (Preachers of the Gospel) of Pope Pius XII, 1951. to commemorate the silver Jubilee of Rerum Ecclesiae. It exhorts missionaries to love the country to which they are sent. The pope praises missionary vocation. They have to learn the languages, agriculture, medicine, history, geography etc. they have to foster education, health care, press, social justice etc. lay people are to participate in the missionary activities especially through prayer and financial support. The object of missionary activity is to bring the light of gospel to every nation and to form new Christians. The ultimate goal is to establish the Church on sound foundation among the non Christians. Quantitative aspect of progress is considered significant according to this encyclical. The encounter between gospel and culture is emphasised as an important aspect of missionary work. The attitude of the pope towards the non Christians is positive. It is a remarkable change. He also exhorts to respect everything that is noble and good.
4. Fidei Donum (Gift of Faith) of Pius XII, 1957: This is about the urgency of missionary work In Africa. Some of the principles of missionary work is seen in it. It is mainly an appeal to the universal Church to co operate in the missionary work in Africa. Missionary work is aimed at establishing the Church and - geographical expansion of the Church is stressed. This is similar to the Leuvein school’s idea.
5. Princeps Pastorum (Pastoral Principles) of Pope John XXIII, 1959: It was written at the 40th anniversary of Maximum Illud. There must be collaboration between local clergy and missionaries from other places. There must be seminaries for the formation of the local clergy in the local environment. There must be spiritual, intellectual and missiological formation given in the seminaries. The call to holiness is addressed to all – both to clergy and laity. It is through the sanctity of the preacher, the preaching is made more effective. Quality must be stressed along with the quantity. Spreading the faith is the duty of everybody in the Church. So personal and community witness through committed life is important.
6. Ad Gentes (Vatican II’s Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church): Vatican II was a trend setter in the history of the Church. According to Pope John XXIII a better understanding of the missionary activity of the Church is one of the main purposes of this council. The mission of the Church in the world is the most important theme of the council. LG and AG speaks of the mission of the Church.
There is a gradual progress in the understanding of the concept of mission.
History of Redaction: there are six stages in the redaction of AG
1. Ante preparatory stage (1959 – 61)
2. Preparatory Stage (1961 – 62)
3. Council Session I (1962)
4. Council Session II (1963)
5. Council Session III (1964)
6. Council Session IV (1965).
1.Ante Preparatory Stage: In this stage the opinion from different people were collected about the themes of discussion. A commission was made to collect opinions of the world episcopate and theologians regarding the topics. During this period neither the Bishops nor the congregation wanted to have a separate decree. Mission was considered as foreign mission lands. Missionary activity means preaching of the gospel to the non Christians.
2.Preparatory Commission: A preparatory Commission was appointed by the Holy Father. The duty of it was to organise different committees or commissions for the forth coming council. This commission was strictly under a juridical consideration. It maintained a territorial view of missions. Missionary activities are always in the mission lands. Practically nothing was done with regard to missions. But the merit was that one commission was entrusted to study the topic of missions, even though they did not want to have a separate decree.
3.Council Session I: the topic Mission did not come for discussion in the council hall even though the commission for mission had prepared a draft. In the first session liturgy was the main topic of discussion, which was very much dear to the Bishops from the mission lands, especially the use of vernacular language in liturgy etc. they did not ask for a separate decree on missionary activity. Though the bishops came without much expectation, they were hopeful after the first session. It gave a boosting to the missionary bishops.
4.Second Session: the main theme of discussion was ‘the Church’. This topic prompted many bishops to think about the mission of the Church and also the missionary activities of the Church. They asked for a decree on missionary activity of the Church. The bishops wanted to have a third session for the council.
5.Third Session: Before the starting of the third session the commission for mission and central Secretariat prepared 14 propositions instead of a decree. It was a truncated schema (mutilated schema). But this made the Bishops angry. They circulated two counter schemas rejecting the 14 propositions as “dry bones”. Holy Father said that the 14 propositions must be revised and a full decree must be prepared. When the discussion started the group was divided into two. There were only few people who stood for territorial or geographical sense of mission. Many others said that mission must be oriented to people and not to land.
6.Fourth Session: A new draft was prepared by Y. Congar and Ratzinger. They were not in favour of territorial concept of the mission. They were in favour of a theological understanding of mission. Out of 2399, 2394 bishops voted in favour of the decree. This decree gives the theological foundation for the mission of the Church. This foundation is a Trinitarian foundation. The mission of the Church is based on the Holy Trinity. (LG is the central document of Vatican II; it gives a new ecclesiological vision – an ecclesiology of Episcopal collegiality and of communion. It is more ecumenical in tone. Pope presides over charity. LG affirms that missionary activity is at the heart of the Church. The very opinion of this constitution is “Christ is the light of all nations.”, i.e., Church is upholding a missionary eschatology.
Basing on LG Ad Gentes gives us the theological vision on the mission of the Church. The Church is missionary by her very nature. LG begins, ‘Christ is the light of all nations.” It is expressive of the mind of the Church. This is the missionary mind of the church. Prior to Vatican II missionary command was known as the theological foundation of mission. AG makes clear the mission and missionary activity of the Church is based on Trinity. The mission of the Church is a sharing. The very root of the missionary activity is the God who has revealed to us as Father, Son and the Holy Spirit.
AG 2: the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature. It is from the mission of the Son and the Spirit the Church receives her missionary activity. All mission activity flow from the love of God the Father. He is the principle of everything. Salvation of humanity is the outcome of God the Father’s will. For this he sent his only son to the world. This sending is the beginning of all other sendings. Jesus was the missionary of the father. Every missionary has a mission. Jesus’ was to save the humanity. The Holy Spirit makes the Church a missionary one. Church remains as the culmination of Jesus’ mission. Jn 20, 21: the Church remains in a sent state – sent by Jesus. Church remains as the missionary of the Son. Holy Spirit animates the Church – to grow and to expand; calls everyone to Church and builds up Church, the body of Christ. The missionary character remains as the very existence of the Church. Church continues the mission of the Father and of the Son; so we call Church a missionary.
Mission is of two types: Ad Intra and Ad Extra. Ad Extra means the historical manifestation of the coming of the Son and of the procession of the Holy Spirit.
Mission is not simply a question of obeying the missionary command. It is a co operating in the divine plan to make the humanity one people of God. Even though the Trinitarian aspect is the unique contribution of Vatican II this concept is already there in the Fathers, especially in the Capadocean fathers. Henri De Lubac had written- Church is essentially missionary, her mission is none other than the first means, the missionary activity. Missionary activity is in built in the Church. Church is missionary by her very nature.
Missionary activity (Missions or Mission Ad Extra): Mission towards the people: In Vatican II there is a transition from ‘mission’ to ‘missions.’ AG 9 says that missionary activity is nothing less and nothing less than God’s will. Missions has the origin in the mission and mission has the origin in the second and third persons of Trinity the Church has only one mission – sharing in Son and Spirit. The mission of the Church is bearing witness to Christ and Spirit in the world – to bear witness to God’s love. This one mission has many spheres and aspects. One of these is known as missionary activity or missions.
In Redemptoris Missio 31, Pope John Paul II says, mission is one and undivided, having one single origin and final purpose. This mission is carried out in different way. Redemptoris Missio 41, Mission is a single, but complex reality. It develops in a variety of ways. Missionary activity is an essential and never ending mission of the Church. This is a primary and principal service which the Church must render to all, i.e., Church is to be a missionary all the time. This is a binding duty of the Church. Without missionary activity the church’s missionary dimension would be deprived of its essential meaning, because she is missionary by very nature. It is a must for the Church to be a missionary.
There is difference between missionary activity, pastoral work and ecumenism. Missionary activity is always directed to those who are outside the Church.
Goals of missionary activity: 1. Preaching the gospel and 2. establishing the Church. Evangelisation and implantation are not opposing each other; instead they are complementing to each other. Evangelisation is used here in a strict sense. Evangelisation means the missionary preaching here. It is different from preaching, catechumenate and homily. Evangelisation means the first preaching of the Word of God to non Christians. The non Christian world hears the Word for the first time; it is evangelisation. The content of this preaching: Jesus was the content of the Apostolic preaching. They were announcing the good news of Jesus. Apostles were highlighting the death and resurrection of Christ. Acts 2, 23 – 24; 3, 14 – 15;
AG 13 says, we have to preach the living God and Jesus Christ. The council does not specify the particular events in the life of Jesus such as his death and resurrection. Present Jesus as the saviour of the world. If we do not present Jesus as the saviour there is no evangelisation. How we have to know Jesus. But this knowledge always mean a comprehensive knowledge. Evangelisation is for having a contact with the person of Jesus. This contact means ‘faith’. Faith is the real response from the part of the new converts. As a result the converts have to lead a new life of faith.
AG 12: how can we bring the good news to those regions where the direct proclamation is forbidden? Here evangelisation means spreading the gospel message through other means such as the witness of life,. Charity and dialogue.
AG 11: the silent present of the Church, sometimes and somewhere, is the only presence possible for the church. Our life help them in the long run to know Christ. Living is important. Christianity is to be lived before being taught.
AG 12: Closely united with men Christians bear witness to Christ even where they are not able to proclaim Christ fully. The missionaries have to engage themselves in dialogue with non Christian environment. Genuine dialogue is a means for witnessing and evangelisation. We have to collaborate with non Christians in socio –economic fields and collaborate others in works of charity. The support of the non Christian world is to be sought of it. This will help us to have a real contact with the non Christians.
The heart of missionary activity is preaching; but witnessing, dialogue and charitable activities must precede this preaching. Preaching is a fundamental and indispensable demand. The Church is duty bound to propagate the faith.
AG 13: How to preach? The decree forbids all kinds of compulsion and triumphalistic attitudes. Gospel is good news; it must be just proposed, not compelled. In short evangelisation means, preaching of gospel so that non Christians are led to conversion and faith in the person of Jesus Christ. Those who acknowledge Jesus will be gathered together into an ecclesial community. This is the second stage of establishing the Church or implanting the Church. Through missionary preaching the implantation of the Church is achieved. Implantation means the gathering of the people of God into an ecclesial community – a community of the faithful. The essence of evangelisation is establishing the Church. Implantation means the formation of the local Eucharistic community. Mere individual conversion is not enough, but it should establish local Eucharistic communities which would in long run become an individual church. Mere instruction and baptising of the individuals is the style of Protestants. But Catholic view is different – we should go beyond mere conversion to formation Eucharistic communities. Establishing the Church does not mean acquisition of properties and construction of buildings. What is needed is permanence of faith and sacraments – build up the community in faith and sacraments and in Christian charity. “We have to form a community of faith, liturgy and love” (AG19).
There are three stages in the formation of a community: 1. catechumenate 2. sacramental life and 3. the formation of the lay leaders.
The first process involves the announcement of the gospel – Kerygmatic proclamation (first announcement) and catechesis. Chatechumenate is an initiation to the life of the Christian community. It is not simply memorisation of certain prayers and dogmas. It is the entrance into a new form of life – in morality and in sacramental life.
In the second stage: catechumenate leads to the sacraments of initiation. People are led to a journey of faith through mystegogical catechesis – catechesis on the sacraments or on the mystery of the church, gospel, liturgy and charity.
Formation of the lay leaders is the third stage for the functioning of this community. To achieve the goal of a local Church we must have a local clergy, different forms of religious life, lay leaders and local hierarchy. Lay leadership means catechists and leaders of community. Also in this Church there must be different forms of contemplative and monastic life. If all these factors are there it can be called a truly developed diocese.
The third chapter of AG is devoted to the study of the missionary activities of the particular churches or dioceses. But it is equally applicable to individual churches (Dioceses) or Sui Iuris Churches; perhaps it is more applicable to individual churches (Eg., liturgical practices – each diocese cannot have different liturgies; but an individual Church can have it.).
Growth and Position of Particular Churches
The work of implantation reaches a definite stage with the formation of a full fledged stage – when it is capable of handing on the faith to the next generation. It is not simply a gathering of people; but the gathering of worshippers. AG 19: An adapted catechesis, a liturgy in harmony with the culture of people, canonical legislation etc. should be there. In the process of implantation we must give more importance to the people of God. Formation to the community is essential for the growth of a particular Church. Implantation and the growth are two phases of the same reality. In this , the bishop has to oversee the growth of the particular Church entrusted to him. Bishop, together with the entire presbyterium, is a member of the college of Bishops. That means he has responsibility to the entire Church and to his church. It is through the Bishop apostolicity is maintained in the Church. To safeguard the faith tradition of the Church is the primary duty of the Bishop. The newly formed diocese should have an intimate communion with the universal Church.
Proper Mission: the diocese also share the same ecclesial mystery and same apostolicity. So every diocese has the duty of sending out people to proclaim the gospel. There is no difference between sending Church and receiving churches. All churches should become evangelising churches. Each diocese has two missions: inside the territory and outside the territory. The Bishops are the heralds of the good news. The diocesan clergy must co operate with the missionaries form outside. Besides, they themselves must be ready go outside for missionary activities.
AG 23: Rights of the particular churches: Each Church can have its own liturgy, theological and spiritual heritage and proper discipline. There must be co operation between the bishops and the Episcopal conferences not only between Bishops, but between churches. AG Chapter 6: the norms of this co operation between the conferences are given. The diocese must consider the formation of the missionaries as their responsibility. They must be given theological catechetical formation and it is the responsibility of the diocese to give it.
Role of the Laity
Every baptised person is called to be a missionary. The three fold missions is assigned to the laity: 1. Bear witness to Christ through their words and deeds in family, social groups and in profession. Bear witness to the faith wherever we are. 2) they are called to be men of charity towards other people. Everybody is called to be an epiphany of God’s love. 3) Preach and teach the gospel and Christian doctrines.
Inter Ecclesial Relations in the Missions
More than one catholic community may exist in the same region. India is the best example for it. In such situations all of us have the same right and duty to evangelise because the mission of evangelisation is entrusted to the Church. AG 15: Above all charity should prevail among Catholics of all traditions. This is a warning directed towards Near East and Indian situations where missionaries belonging to different traditions work together. Co operation between churches in the same mission is the duty of the Bishop. Communion and common work is essential for fruitful evangelisation.
Relationship Between Catholics and Non Catholics (Ecumenism)
An ecumenical spirit must be kept in the missions. AG 6, 12, 16, 19, 36 etc. there are references to the ecumenical spirit that must prevail among Christian denominations. All preach Christ who is the common Lord of all and also all have the same sacramental baptism. Indifference, unhealthy intermingling and rivalry are to be avoided. (AG 15). There must be co operation instead of rivalry. There must be unity between Christians, because division or disunity will damage the most holy cause of preaching the gospel. “A divided Christendom cannot fully present Christ among the non christens” (AG 15). For a non Christian there is no difference between Catholics and non Catholics. So unity is a must. AG 15 says that there must be co operation in individual and communal levels. It reflects the ecumenical spirit of the Council. A united witness only can have result in the mission.
The decree insists on teaching ecumenism. Catholics are to be instructed about the true faith of Orthodox and of the Protestants. Brotherly communion must be there between different denominations. Co operation in different realms including the rituals. There is should be co operation and mutual appreciation between different Christian churches. In mission we should have authenticity of faith and true charity. (Co operation does not mean giving up our faith.).
Non Christian Religions and the Missions
The council said that there is the possibility of salvation outside the catholic Church. LG 16 – 19 says this. Church upholds a positive view about other religions. AG does not treat this question at length. This question is dealt with in NA. but in AG there are certain remarks about the non Christian religions. The council acknowledges the work of divine grace everywhere. Hence salvation is offered to all. God, through His own Spirit, is present everywhere. There are truth and grace in the world as well as in religions (AG 9). There is the secret presence of God among the other people. AG 11, 15 says that in their national and religious traditions there is hidden the seeds of the Word. So God will provide them with the means of salvation. They also have seeds of asceticism. and contemplation. But they are not to be equated with Christianity; they are only a preparation to gospel. They are to be enlightened and purified. This is the work of the missionaries. All Christians are to enter into dialogue with the non Christian religions. Thus we can also recognize the treasures, that God has distributed among them. This dialogue is not mean for conversion; but for a mutual understanding, love and unity.
There is a change in the understanding of the catholic Church towards the other religions. It has not come all on a sudden. It was the result of theological thinking prior to Vatican II. Theologians like Paul Knitter says the God experience was there among the pagans and non Christians. Many theologians affirmed the universality of Christ and grace. Holy Spirit was at work even before the glorification of Jesus. Religions in the world are grace filled means of salvation and are positively included in God’s plan of salvation. To some extent these theologians equate other religions with Christianity. But Rahner says, the religions in the world are incomplete without Christ; hence there is the need of continued missionary activity. The full presence of Christ is lacking in other religions. The council only says that they also are in the plan of God’s salvation. It does not equate other religions with the catholic Church.
Post Conciliar Thinking about the Missionary Activities
In the council there was a shift from the concept of ‘missions’ to ‘mission’ (evangelisation). The term mission was substituted by the term ‘evangelisation’. Mission is the nature of the Church; evangelisation is the activity of the Church, by which the nature is presented before the world. “The missionary Church exists to evangelise.”, says Pope Paul VI.
The term evangelisation was not in use until post conciliar time. It was used only in the sense ‘the first announcement of the good news’, not as a substitution to the term ‘the missions’ or ‘mission’. The modern re discovery of the term took place in Protestant circles. They were using it from the very beginning of the twentieth century. ‘evangelisation’ appears about 35 time in the documents of Vatican II, but not always in the same sense, but never as a substitute for ‘mission’. The most common usage of the term in catholic Church began with the Synod of Bishops (of which the theme was ‘evangelisation of the modern world) in 1974. it was popularised by the apostolic exhortation Evangelii Nuntiandi(1975) of Pope Paul VI. Ever since its publication the term ‘mission’ was substituted by evangelisation. But the other terms also are in use. A shift from ‘mission’ to ‘evangelisation’ is a development in the post conciliar time.
Why evangelisation instead of mission? Theological and historical reasons are there: first of all the de Christianisation of Europe due to industrialisation and secularisation. They became neither Christian nor non Christian. The Church has the duty of preaching gospel to them also. They wanted to find a term which indicates preaching of the gospel to non Christians, Christians and de- Christians. Preaching to the first is called ‘mission’, to the second ‘pastoral activity’, and to the third, ‘new evangelisation’ or ‘re evangelisation’. Thus the term evangelisation came to catholic usage.
Historical reason: the post independent situation of the ‘one time colonies’ also demanded a new term. Because in the former days there was both colonisation and evangelisation. But the historians say that this is an unholy association between these two. After independence in these colonies there emerged an aggressive attitude towards the Christian missionaries because of the above mentioned fact. Many missionaries were attacked and killed by the native people. There was a hatred towards the terms like ‘missions’, ‘missionaries’, ‘mission work’ etc. missions and missionaries were seen as agents of western domination. So they were in search of a new term.
Theological reasons: Vatican II gave us a new vision of man and a new theology of the world. Even the concept of salvation was changed from mere salvation of the soul to integral salvation. The missionaries have to work for the integral salvation of the humanity. The traditional ‘missionary activity’ does not include all thse terms. So a new term was needed.
Evangelii Nuntiandi (Dec 8, 1975). It is pastorally and theologically better than encyclical Redemptoris Missio of 1990. it is a post synodal exhortation. This has taken up and developed the unfinished agenda of the Synod of 1974, which did not have a final message, because there were two divergent schools or opinions operative in the synodal hall. Instead of making a final message they gave their own suggestions to the Holy Father. On the basis of this the Holy Father made an apostolic exhortation. This is actually a papal meditation on evangelisation. It is rich in its doctrinal, theological and pastoral aspects. It is very simple and direct in its presentation. Exhortatory style is found in the document. Seven chapters with 82 articles. This was designed to mobilise the whole Church especially the evangelisers. Pope is more concerned about the pastoral aspect of evangelisation. It gives a global or wider understanding of evangelisation. The meaning of evangelisation was expanded from ‘preaching the word to the non Christians’ to all the efforts made by the Church that the faith may be spread all over. Evangelisation is the grace and vocation proper to the Church. Church exists for evangelisation. It is not remaining only on the missionary command of Christ to preach the good news to the whole world. Evangelisation is constituting its very basis for the Church for it existence. No evangelisation, no Church. Evangelii Nuntiandi has a wider conception of evangelisation apart from identifying it with one or other aspects of evangelisation (with preaching, catechesis, liberation, inculturation etc.). There is only one mission for the Church: to continue the mission of Christ; it is carried out in many ways. Everything that is designed to accomplish this mission is called evangelisation.
Evangelii Nuntiandi (Shortened to EN) 17: any partial or fragmentary definition of evangelisation distorts and impoverish the concept. Evangelisation consists of different elements. We must be aware of it. So evangelisation is a complex, rich and dynamic reality. One has to take into account all these essential elements and aspects. (EV 24.) Preaching of the word of God is only a part of evangelisation. Evangelisation is a complex process made up of different elements. These elements are complimentary and mutually enriching. (EN 17, 24, 26). To grasp the meaning of Evangelisation we have to take into consideration all these elements such as the renewal of humanity, witness, explicit adherence etc. the task of evangelisation has a particular task – the renewal of the humanity.
EN 18: definition of concept of evangelisation: To evangelise means to bring the good news into all the strata of humanity, and through its influence, transforming humanity from within and making it new through its influence. So evangelisation also includes the normal pastoral activities carried out among Christians. The ultimate goal of evangelisation is not the conversion of non Christians, but the renewal of humanity, which would take place only with an interior change of individuals.
EN presents a new concept of evangelisation. This evangelic mission is a binding duty for every Christian from which no one is exempted. In this sense both evangelisation to non Christians and pastoral activities among Christians are not different.
Essential elements of Evangelisation: 1. Witness of life by Christian communities to Christian values (EN 21). 2. clear and unequivocal proclamation of word 3. Sacramental life. The absence of one of these elements makes evangelisation meaningless. They are the constitutive elements of evangelisation.
Humanity in general is the recipient of the beneficiary of evangelisation irrespective of Christians or non Christians or territorial differences. Evangelisation is a global concept because its concern for human development and liberation, according to the new vision. (EN 31 – 38). Evangelisation is not mere proclamation of the Word, but also liberating mission. Also we are not interested in quantitative growth; but qualitative growth is the motto of the Church. Liberation and inculturation are pertaining to the aspect of evangelisation. In EN importance is given to integral salvation- spiritual as well as secular. Evangeliser is sent to redeem the humanity from all kinds of liabilities. The good new of Christ offers life and liberation from all kinds of bondages. John Paul II says, to evangelise means to proclaim the gospel. Gospel is summed up in Jesus – in his words and deeds. Jesus is the saviour and solution to every problem. Evangelisers must be faithful to the message and to the people whom he address. It must be according to the context.
Three Essential Elements of evangelisation
1. Christian witness 2, explicit proclamation of good news and 3. celebration of sacraments are traditionally understood as constitutive elements of evangelisation. So evangelisation is a tri -dimensional reality (also multi dimensional reality.). These three elements correspond to the reality of Jesus Himself – the way, truth and life. He is the way that must be witnessed to the truth that must be proclaimed and the life that must be shared.
In evangelisation the Church proclaims the death and resurrection of Christ. This proclamation of the word and participation in sacraments must be preceded by Christian testimony or Christian witness of the community and of the individual. Good news must be proclaimed first and foremost through Christian witness. Church realises her prophetic mission through proclamation, priestly mission through sacraments and royal mission through testimony of life. All these three are to be taken in a unity. They are interdependent and interactive.
The Church has paid attention from the very beginning to the aspect of living the word of God. The preacher must be a witness, who is authentic and credible in his preaching. Proclamation without witness produces no effect. He must practice what he preaches like Jesus. Bearing witness to Christ even in silence is the authentic evangelisation. It is wordless, but powerful. Even mere presence of a Christian is evangelisation. Acts 1, 8: Jesus sends the Apostles with the command of witnessing all over the world. They bore witness to Jesus. This is the model we have to follow.
Church is the agent of evangelisation. So it is the Christian community which should bear witness by being good citizens and by obeying the legitimate authorities. The gospel message is to be addressed to the human person in his totality. The proclamation touches his intelligence whereas the testimony of life appeals to the will. The former expresses, the latter impresses. The impression is more important. In order to bear witness one must have an experience of Christ and this experience must be direct, personal and spiritual.
‘Evangelise’ means bear witness to the love of the Father (EN 26). God has loved the world and calls everyone to the fullness of the world. All the Christians may not get a chance to proclaim gospel in far away places; but all will get the chance to live the gospel. In the East Syrian Church the evangelisation was through the monastic life. During that time they outnumbered Latins and Greeks put together. It is because of their missionary zeal. The Church was called church on fire. The monks did not go out, but the people came to the monasteries and the monks taught and helped the people. They translated the liturgy and scripture into the local languages. Thus people got attracted to Christianity. The religious life of prayer, penance and silence was a great evangelisation. They were aware of the presence of God in them and they lived accordingly. Real interior prayer life and contemplation led them to bear witness to the word. There was a love and craving for the Eucharist. If the missionary is not a man of prayer he cannot proclaim Christ in a credible manner. Jesus Christ is the best model of missionaries.
Witness to unity is another dimension of evangelisation. If the missionaries are divided in themselves the credibility is lost. Their proclamation will not be effective. The success of evangelisation depends upon the witness of unity. (EN). The life of the early Christian community is the best example for unity. All who believed were together; they had everything in common. Today the witness of life has become important more than ever. If the Christians fail to give witness that is a counter witness. The evangelist must be true and sincere. (EN 76), believe, live and preach. There must be unity among all these. Contradiction between life and message is the gravest scandal. Christian witness is a form of evangelisation that can be carried out anywhere and everywhere in the world.
Explicit preaching of the word.
Without preaching evangelisation is inconceivable. Sometimes the very concept of evangelisation is identified with preaching alone. Preaching is the central part of evangelisation; but it is only a constitutive element of evangelisation. So witness must be followed by a clear and unequivocal proclamation of the word of God. There is no evangelisation proper without announcing the name, life and deeds of Lord Jesus. First we have to live the faith; then announce it. Jesus was announcing the good news concerning God (EN 7). The apostles also followed the teaching mission of God. The preaching of Jesus and apostles gave birth to the Church. They preached the word of God and thus came out the Church. (EN 59). Preaching is an essential element because one is not able to come to faith without preaching. So faith formation is necessary. Faith comes through hearing of the word of God. EN 42: the word of God must be preached; faith is need for salvation for which a prior proclamation is necessary.
What would be the content of Christian proclamation? It is Jesus which is the content. There is no real evangelisation without proclaiming Jesus- his life and teachings and gospel (EN 22). Fidelity to the gospel is essential. No watering down of the gospel messages. The evangeliser must abide by the instruction given by the sender, i.e., the Church. Evangeliser is sent by the Church. So they have to proclaim the gospel and not their own idea. The evangelisers are not the authors, but the stewards of the word of God. To evangelise means to preach the mysteries of the kingdom brought by Christ. These mysteries are identifiable with Jesus himself. Jesus asked “seek the kingdom first, everything will follow.” Kingdom means His life, words and deeds together. Jesus was always presenting God the Father. He had something new in his proclamation. God is presented as compassionate, lovable faithful and merciful. The kingdom is where the will of God is respected; where there is peace, love and justice. It is not simply a question of increasing the number of baptisms. Emphasis Jesus and his mysteries. The hearer of the message of Jesus is called to an interior conversion.
Kingdom of God and the Church.
They cannot be identified easily. Church is a sign of the kingdom. We still pray, “Your kingdom come.” Church is the gathering of those who believe in Jesus. Church and kingdom, though not identical cannot be separated. Where there is kingdom, there is the Church ; where there is the Church, there is kingdom. Church’s duty is to announce the coming of the kingdom. Church is to announce the coming of the kingdom. Church is the seed and beginning of the kingdom. Church fulfils the task of spreading the kingdom through evangelisation. While announcing the kingdom the church is not substituting Christ. Church proclaims the kingdom manifested in the very person of Jesus. There is a chrostocentrism in our preaching of the kingdom. It is the test of the authenticity of evangelisation. (Christocentrism).
The good news is not primarily a set of doctrines, but an answer to the problems of the people. The essence of the word of God is Jesus. He is the answer to all the problems. There is no evangelisation at all if the name of Jesus is not proclaimed. Some object to open proclamation as a violation of the religious liberty of others. The Holy Father says that the evangeliser’s mission is to propose the message, and not imposing the message. This is to be done by avoiding coercion and persuasion of any kind. Conversion is to be won by the cross and not by the sword. Those people who do not accept or believe the gospel message also will hold this with respect and reverence. So we must respect them.
Another objection: The seeds of the word are already present in the world as well as in all cultures and in all religions. But evangelisers says that God saves humanity as he wishes, not as we propose. But he has revealed to us that the ordinary path of salvation in Jesus, who is unique. Other religions do not possess the fullness of presence of God. The evangeliser should not avoid preaching due to fear, objection from people etc. but at the same time we must respect the dignity of the persons.
From the part of the hearers: There is the necessity of preaching the gospel. Modern world is fed up with listening to spoken word. So we have to proclaim in such a way that is intelligible to the people. All occasions are to be made use of for communicating the word of God. The most important time is of the homily. Holy Qurbana is not the only time for homily, but it can be done in all the appropriate occasions.
The celebration of the Sacraments: It is an essential element of evangelisation along with witness and proclamation. Evangelisation itself is sacramental because evangelisation mission belongs to the Church, which is the primordial sacrament. Participation in the sacramental life is necessary for salvation. Every sacrament is an experience of the encounter with Christ, this encounter is the goal of evangelisation. The sacraments are in the church and of the Church. Evangelisation cannot be fully achieved by mere proclamation. But grace also is needed. This grace comes form the sacraments. Proclamation must lead us to sacraments. So we have to instruct people to receive the sacraments. EN 47 says that sacraments are not to be received in passivity. They are to be received as true sacraments of faith. We have to receive and live the sacraments.
Earlier evangelisation and sacraments were thought to be different. But both evangelisation and sacramental life go together. The sacraments will produce result only if they are received properly. So a preparation through catechesis is needed. There must be proper balance between word and sacraments. Catholics have been accused of being sacramentalists, they do not give due importance to the word of God. But now there are people who give more importance to the word discarding the celebration of the sacraments, especially that of Qurbana. There must be a proper balance between both word and the sacraments.
The Church is the sacrament of salvation. Now it is our duty to present Church as the sacrament of salvation. This can be done only through participation in the sacramental life of the Church. Sacramental life finds its fullness in the Eucharist, which is the source and summit of all evangelisation. (PO). The ultimate aim of evangelisation is to have a full Eucharistic community. EN 14: Church exists inorder to evangelise. The Church exists in order to celebrate the sacraments, especially, the Eucharist. Celebration of the sacraments is an integral part of evangelisation. The very missionary command includes both preaching and baptising. Both go together. So proclamation must lead to sacramental life. Sacramental life must be preceded by catechesis. Both are complimentary. For making a proper community both catechesis and sacraments are essential. Eucharist is the point of arrival and departure in the Church.
Evangelisation and sacraments go together. They enrich each other. There is a movement form witness to proclamation and to celebration. The fullness is attained in the celebration of the sacraments. In short Eucharist makes us true evangelisers.
Evangelisation and Liberation
The theme liberation is very prominent in present day theology. There is no contrast between evangelisation and liberation. Liberation becomes meaningful in the context of evangelisation. Evangelisation becomes fruitful in the context of liberation. Today it has become our (Church’s) responsibility to give all the people with the means necessary for leading a human life in dignity. But today there is great oppression and injustice in the world. It keeps the great majority of people in poverty. Millions of people are in a subhuman existence, living in utter poverty. This is evidently a mockery to the God the creator. There are other forms of oppression elsewhere. Such as religious fundamentalism (even in India), materialism, secularisation, liberalism etc. all these are forms of oppression in richer countries of the world. This situation prompts the missionaries of Church to re think of the content and method of evangelisation. The good news of Jesus is the message of joy and freedom. In proclaiming this message one cannot be blind towards the current problems. Human beings need to be freed from all the forms of oppression. Evangelisation includes liberation or work for liberation. This is not something that has to be discovered by Councils or encyclicals. But the awareness of this was there in the church from the beginning. E.g. Acts 5, 1 – 6: Deacons are assigned with the duty of distributing daily bread. Also Paul collected offerings from people for the Church in Jerusalem. Care for soul and body are two aspects of the same activity. They cannot be separated. The dualism came in the Church during the Constantine era. The good news was reduced only to spiritual message. The acceptance of the gospel was seen as guarantee for eternal salvation. Church was not concerned about needs of the people. It kept itself away from the economic and social realities of the people. The Church even supported the so called oppressive structure.
This separation between spiritual and temporal had great consequences. The Church lost a number of its followers. When the Council started in 1962 the Church was not at all involved in the concrete situations of the humanity. Church concentrated only on preaching gospel and saving the souls. The evangelisers were not concerned about the unjust structure of the society in socio economic realms. But there were individual missionaries who were undertaking some developmental activities. But they also were not considering it as the part of their evangelisation. This was considered only as preliminaries to the evangelisation. There was a dualistic mentality.
This situation was changed with the Vatican II. The Church was forced to think about the content and method of missionary activity. GS: The Church is concerned with the joy, grief, anguish of the community. The Church affirmed the dignity of all persons. Church expressed her solidarity with all persons irrespective of cast, creed etc. especially with the weaker sections of that society. Church became conscious of the modern problems. It is reflected in the decree on missionary activities.
Works of liberation and development are not mere preparation for evangelisation. But both go together. Both are parts of the same mission of the Church, which is the mission of Jesus Christ. This idea has been reiterated by other papal teachings such as Populorum Progressio of pope Paul VI, Documents of Medellin in 1968(Latin American Bishops’ Conference), apostolic letter Octogessima Adveniens of Pope Paul VI, The synod of Bishops of 1971. The synod discussed mainly ‘justice in the world’. The synod asserted that liberation is the constitutive part of evangelisation. The synod of Bishops of 1974 also discussed the theme of Justice. It was mainly on evangelisation. In this synod it is the Latin American Bishops who spoke for liberation. The Asian African Bishops were not interested in the use of the term ‘liberation’. They preferred the word ‘development’. The proclamation of the gospel must be applicable for the society. The theme of liberation should be situated in the global concept of evangelisation. There are millions who live in subhuman levels. The Church’s mission is an integral one, which includes both spiritual and temporal dimensions. They cannot be reduced to mere sociological or political activity. Integral liberation must include the whole man (EN 33). The supernatural dimension of the liberation of the Church must not be undermined. If we are not proclaiming the liberation through Jesus we are not doing justice. We also must not over look the temporal and economic grounds. Liberation must not be limited to some aspects alone. The whole person in all aspects should be the concern for us. The objective of liberation taken up by the Church is not purely development in the temporal order, but an integral liberation of the person. Give due importance to both temporal and supernatural orders. There is distinction between supernatural and temporal, evangelisation and liberation. But there is no separation between them. They go together. The Church’s proclamation must be centred on the kingdom of God, combining both dimensions together.
In our work of liberation Church has to depend on evangelical principles and Christian ideals. Nothing other should control our activity such as armed revolution. Anything and everything cannot be labelled as Christian. Human liberation of the Church is identical with salvation in Jesus Christ. Political liberation is not the evangelical mission of the Church. Our action for liberation is rooted in our own vision on the man and world. Any vision of man and history which undermines the role of God is unacceptable to us. God saves the world through Jesus Christ. The person in his entirety is the object of redemption. The Church carries out this in two levels. Evangelisation and liberation – which go together. No violence or armed revolution to safe oppressed people is allowed. Violence has no role in our mission. (EV 37). Violence is unchristian and against the gospel. Violence always provokes another violence. It brings forth another form of oppression.
Use of force or violence could be justified according to the situation but in general all kinds of violence is forbidden. A mere structural change does not bring a change at all change is necessary for stopping oppression. But prior to the structural a change a change of heart must be effected. The aim of Church must be this. The most perfect structures and ideal systems become totally inhuman if the mentality of the people is not right. An interior change is needed for any change.
The Church carries out her mission of liberation in collaboration with all persons of good will. The very proclamation of the Christian message is important. The Church conscientises the faithful with regard to their duty of involving themselves in the work of liberation. Involvement of all sections of people of God is encouraged by the Church. We also have to conscientise the people who are oppressed. The Church has to instil in them the idea of liberation as well as hope for a liberation. We can do all these things based own Church’s own profound and comprehensive teachings. The social doctrines of the Church are rooted in Church’s vision of human person and the history. The persons and their welfare is of great importance for the Church. Our work of liberation is to be associated with our work of evangelisation. He guides the liberators through the right path. The liberation the evangelisers proclaim is the same what Christ had proclaimed. There are certain profound links between evangelisation and liberation. They are of there levels: anthropological, theological and evangelical. The gospel has to be announced to the people in the concrete situation. The situations are liable to change in all the realms – social, political, economic, cultural etc. These changes affects them profoundly. So the evangelisers has to study all these changes and the sciences related to these realms, so that the evangelisation can be made concrete.
The theological link arises because of the intimate relation between creation and redemption. Order of creation and order of redemption are a unity. So also we have to consider the human being as a unity – not as a body and as a soul. Both are related to each other. Only through the mystery of redemptive incarnation we can achieve liberation.
Evangelical link: there is no love of God without love of neighbour which includes peace, equality, truth, justice etc. we proclaim the gospel out of our love towards God, which should be reflected in our relation towards other people. Liberation must be seen as a constitutive part of the evangelising mission of the Church.
Evangelisation and Inculturation
It is one of the prominent themes of EN. In this exhortation Pope does not use ‘inculturation’. Instead of that he uses ‘evangelisation of cultures’. Culture is something associated to the whole life of the people. Every missionary has to encounter the culture. Here comes the relevance of inculturation. Culture and religion are very closely related in the life of the people. E.g., In India Hindu culture is important. It is closely related to religion also. But in the west there is a certain degree of separation between religion and culture. So the problem the Church faces is different in the East and in the West.
Culture is a complex and dynamic reality. GS 53: the Magna Carta of the gospel – culture encounter. It tells of the relationship between Church and the world. According to this culture is the way of life of the people. It varies form people to people. There are a variety of cultures in the world. Culture is very much a part of human existence. Culture is the total life way of a people.(says Kluhohn). The social legacy the individual acquires form his group. Culture is a complex whole which includes all the capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a community.
Gospel – Culture Encounter
It is not something new. Jesus himself asked his disciples to go and preach gospel to all people irrespective of culture. In every culture there are positive and negative elements. No culture is alien to the gospel. The gospel is not bound to any particular culture at all. But the missionaries considered their own culture as the culture. The mission of the church is universal, not bound to any particular culture.
Till Vatican II we were following a defective missionary methodology. The Post reformation missionary activities have been carried out almost all by the Western missionaries of the Roman Church, because due to historical and political reasons most of the eastern churches were not in a position capable of taking up missionary activities. Western missionaries were the offshoot of colonial spirit and power. But a number of local churches grew up in Asia and Africa due to the missionary activities. But these local churches were not indigenous. Tighter with the faith the missionaries were imparting the western culture also. Christianity was practically identified with west and Especially with Rome.
Very often the newly converted people were cut away from the local cultures. Christianity and Christian faith grew as a plant in a flower pot, in a soil borrowed from somewhere else, with no roots in the soil of the land. Vatican II was aware of its defects. So it gave some proposals for gospel – culture encounter.
In EN the Pope speaks of evangelisation of cultures mainly. Then he speaks of evangelisation proper. I the evangelisation process we have to take into account the culture also. The evangelisers must have a positive outlook towards non Christian cultures and religions. The evangelisers have to remain faithful to the essential content of the gospels.
Pope says that we have to distinguish between both eastern and western situations. In the East culture and religion go together. But in the West there is a separation between culture and religion. The goal of evangelisation is the interior change and renewal of humanity through the power of the gospel, and not mere conversion. This will take place only when the culture is deeply permiated by the good news. It is evident that people are deeply attached to their own culture. All cultures and religions possess the seeds of God’s word. So we must have a positive attitude to all religions. EN 53: They are in preparation of the gospel. The goal of evangelisation is the renewal of humanity. It is also the gathering of local people for the celebration – taking into consideration all the cultural elements.
The local Church has to work for further evangelisation in a language that would be understood by them. The impact of evangelisation on the culture and people is called inculturation ad extra.- Inculturation from outside. Effect of the presence of the gospel in the community is called evangelisation ad intra – a new form of living. Gospel must be spread in a language that is understood to them. (language means language in anthropological and cultural sense. Language symbolises the feelings and experience of the people, their way of looking at things etc. real inculturation is impossible without proclaiming the gospel in the local language.
Different sectors of inculturation: Liturgical expressions, catechesis, theological formulation, church structures and ministry. Inculturation must cover all these areas. AG stresses much on the incorporation of asceticism and contemplation. They are to be taken up by the evangelists. The process of evangelization must embrace the whole sphere of life. What is essential is gospel culture encounter. Gospel must penetrate into the culture. All encounters are in need of an encounter with the gospel even in the traditional Christian communities. A renewed encounter is needed. It is the duty of evangelizers to bring the gospel to the traditional cultures. As a result there will emerge new cultures and gospel values. (Christianity failed to grow in the soil of the land especially in India and Africa. They are considered foreigners. It is due to the failure in assimilating the cultures).
Who is responsible for the inculturation? According to EN the Bishops and the hierarchy are responsible for the local healthy inculturation. The success of inculturation depends on the capacity of the missionaries to integrate the cultural aspects. The evangelizers must have an open mind – ready to enter in dialogue with people of other faith. Evangelization of cultures will lead to healthy theological pluralism. Incluturation must come from the daily life of the people. It must not be something imposed upon.
Purification of cultures: Evangelizing the cultures means transforming the cultures. All cultures in the world is in need of purification and redeeming, because all elements of a culture may not be equally valuable or may not be Christian. All cultures are affected by the sinful humanity. Therefore they are to be purified and transformed. We have to get rid of the evil elements. People would think that theirs is the best and only way of a good life. But it is not right. The gospel must encounter every culture and enrich them. Cultures must undergo a process of passion, death and resurrection. Culture need to be regenerated. But we should not destroy anything that is noble in the cultures. The good elements are to be retained and enriched by the encounter with the gospel.
Indian Christians are accused of inactive in the field of mission. Because India still remains unchristian to a great extend. But the very fact that a Christian community exists even today in the name of St. Thomas is a counter argument of it. There are also proofs for that Christianity was there all over India. There are sound archaeological evidence for it. That means the missionary activities have been made here either by St. Thomas Christians or by the East Syrians. The East Syrians are famous for their missionary zeal in the past. They Christianized India, China, and a great part of Asia. (Hsianfu monument discovered form China is a proof of this. In this the history of missionary activity in China is encarved – ca 681. both in Syriac and in Chinese.). We believe that we have some hierarchical relation with the East Syrian Church form the fourth century. In the document found in Asian countries contain the names of Thomas Christians. That means we also had missionary activities.
The Christian communities in India might have been vanished due to war or such other events. Many of these communities called themselves Thomas Christians. Many of the people baptized by Francis Xavier were once believers in Christ, who might have been reverted to Hinduism due to lack of pastoral activity. The Christian in India were devotees of St. Thomas. Even today there are groups in North India called Thomse who are non Hindus.
St. Thomas Christians hold the belief that everybody will be saved according to their belief. (marga). So they were not insisting upon conversion. Conversion is unthinkable for Hindus also.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ad Gentes
Evangelii Nuntiandi – Pope Paul VI (1975)
Redemptoris Missio (1990)
Ecclesia in Asia (1999)
Sebastian Karottemprayil ed., Following Christ in Mission
Mission for the Third Millennium, Rome (1993)
Introduction
General Problems of Mission or Missionary Fields
Theology of Mission of Vatican II (AG)
Mission and Missions
Evangelii Nuntiandi
Missionary perspectives of Syro Malabar Church
INTRODUCTION
Redemptoris Missio 16 says, “We are in a new missionary age. A new missionary advent has come.” The history of the Church is the history of the mission. History tells us how the Church carried out the mission and how she understood it –also the emphasis and deficiencies in the mission.
There are different stages in the evolution of the mission starting from the Apostles. The modern age of missionary activities began in the 16th century. It ended with Vatican II. We are in a new missionary age. So it is our duty to formulate a mission theology, the attitudes and methods to be carried out.
The word ‘mission’ is used for many things. It is a common word. It is not always related to propagation of the Word. Mission has become a major theme of reflection in all the Christian denominations.
Mission mission (Lt) Mittere = to send. But we use the word ‘mission’ to signify the propagation of the word of God.
In 1558, Jakob lanez (second Jesuit General) used the word to signify the work of Jesuits among the Maronite Christians in Lebenon = the act of proclamation.
Mission is an enterprise that is undertaken by somebody else’ initiative. Mission is always entrusted by somebody. It is that shall be given. Mission = sending someone to accomplish something. Jesus was the first missionary who was sent by the Father. A faithful is the missionary of Christ.
Missio Dei = Mission of God.
Missio Ecclesiae = Mission of the Church.
Missiology: Missio + Logos (Lt + Gk). Missiology is the systematic study of the evangelising activity of the Church, as well as the ways in which this activities are carried out. It is a scientific study of the missionary activities of the Church in which scientific discipline and missionary charism enrich each other.
AG II: the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature. All the Christians are missionaries. All that we study should have a missionary dimension, because we by nature are missionaries. Missiology is the heart of ecclesiology. Vatican II recommends systematic study of mission theology (AG 16) in the seminaries either as a part of ecclesiology or independently.
According to Karl Rahner Missiology is the self realisation of the Church. This is mission theology.
Missiology makes use of the findings of other theological subjects.
Missionary, in the traditional sense, is a person who is sent to a foreign place to preach gospel among the non Catholics. According to the new understanding Church is missionary, and therefore all are missionaries. Preach the gospel and implant the Church are the duties of the missionaries. The elements in the missionary activity, according to the old understanding, are the sender, the person sent, destination, objectives and motives. (Sender = the Church in a Christian country, especially, European countries; destination = to non Christian regions; objectives = to save the souls.)
Situation of the Mission at the end of the Council: New Trends affecting Missions
The crisis in Christian Missions: Christian mission in the late 60s facing a great crisis all over the world. Both internal and external difficulties weakened the missionary thrust of the Church.
Tracy Jones speaks of the colossal confusion in the Christian mission all over the world – both catholic and protestants.
By twentieth century Christianity is there all over the world.
The reasons of crisis:
1. The decline of colonial era. European colonialism and Christianity are intermingled. Western mission is another form of imperialism, says critics. Europeans were not giving Jesus and his gospel; they were trying to Europeanise Asia. “God and Gold, Church and State, Cross and Sword, Missionary and Soldier go hand in hand.” The motto for them is to conquer the land. The colonial system came to an end. There is no more supremacy of the west. National and cultural autonomy no more exists. Political domination of the west is also no more. People are suspicious of neo colonialism – both cultural and economic.
2. Phenomena of Dechristianisation: the number of practicing Christians is on the decline. There is no sense of dividing the world into sending Church and receiving countries. Christianity has been spread all over the world. Church is missionary all over the world.
3. Theological reasons:
a) Question of salvation outside the Church: Vatican II speaks of possibility of salvation outside the Catholic Church in other religions. (Church does not say ‘there is’ but ‘there is the possibility’. God’s revelation is not limited to the Catholic Church. LG16 – 17. even before the Council theologians like Danielou, H. De Lubac, Congar, Rahner etc. were holding this view. They developed a theology of religions in the theology of the Catholic Church. The catholic missionaries can no longer approach people of other faith with a view of saving their souls. This deteriorated the mission spirit.
b) There are theologians who hold the view that revelation is something personal. Words have to be interpreted in the light of the personal experience. They tried to identify the Christian words with a particular message. Interpret the word in the light of personal experience. People of other faith also are capable of receiving the word of God and interpret the word on the basis of their own personal experience in a (better) way in a (better) formula. So we cannot categorically say that ours is the better or only view.
c) Religious Freedom: Every individual is free to believe and free to belong to any religion. Church respects the freedom of individuals. Therefore today people don’t threaten or force others to join the Church. Even who are joining the Church are free to formulate the faith which they had received.
d) A new World Vision: a vision regarding the Word: Catholics no more considers the world as an enemy. World is not hostile to Christians now. Christians are involved more and more in the problems and trails of the world – to work for justice etc. GS gives a new theology of the world. The trails and problems of the world is that of the Church too. So we have to involve more and more in the affairs of the world. Formerly we were concerned only with preaching; we were not looking into the life of the people. Work for liberation, inculturation etc. also are considered as parts of evangelisation. This also weakened the interest of traditional mission.
e) Developments in Ecclesiology: new vision of the Church – Church is the universal sacrament of salvation. Church includes all who respond to God’s call . she has to identify herself with the poor and the oppressed. It is the duty of everybody to do missionary work. Church includes all those who believe in God. Vatican II says that Church has to put on the mantle of a suffering servant, rather than that of a triumphant ruler. Church is a spirit-led people. So everybody is a missionary. Missionary work is no more the privilege of a few people called missionaries. The missionary duty is one and the same for all; but the method they use may be different.
Formerly the success of missionary was counted on the basis of the number of new converts. But today catholicity is not understood on the basis of territory. Number and territory are not given much importance today.
4. Decline in the number of missionary vocations especially, in Europe. There is lack of true missionary spirit in the traditional Christian countries.
Vatican II says that Church is missionary. Vatican II has awakened an interest among the Christian missionaries and people.
What is Mission?
The concept of mission is often reduced to one or other dimensions of mission: E.g. Expansion of the Church, option for the poor, liberation, political freedom, social justice, development, dialogue and mutual enrichment etc.
Words do not have fixed meanings. It may change as time goes on or when the situation changes.
Paraphrases concerning Mission
Up to 17th century there were many paraphrases about mission:
Mission was understood by some as missionary works and missionary journeys. Acosta SJ in 1588 wrote, mission as journeys and undertakings carried out from town to town for the sake of the word of God. He was reflecting the mind of Ignatius Loyola.
Protestants of 17th century were having more concern for mission rather than the Catholics. They defined mission (Philip Nicholai, Johann Heinrich Etc.) as spreading the kingdom of Christ throughout the whole world. Philip Jakob Spener says that mission is the extension of the kingdom of God and promotion of glory of God and Christ.
Systematic paraphrasing came in a later period.
1. Mission is understood here as propagation of faith. (Propaganda Fidei). This congregation was established in 1622 July 22 by Pope Gregory XV. Vatican II changed the name to “Congregation for the Evangelisation of Peoples.” This congregation was established to control the political influence of Portugal and Spain in the so called mission countries. Because it was the time of Padroado. According to Pope Nicholas V. (1447 – 55), the newly founded world would be divided into Portuguese and Spanish countries for missionary works. The kings of these countries were in charge of missionary works in the newly found world. When this influence became too much Rome decided to establish a Congregation – propaganda Fidei, which has the right of missionary work all over the world. Thus Portuguese and Spanish Padroado was suppressed. According to the decree Propaganda Fidei is a papal institution for the propagation of faith in the whole world to preach gospel to all creatures, to gather the ignorant and the godless and to lead them to Christ and his Church. Propaganda’s attention was centred mainly on foreign missions. According to this, mission means ‘mission to the non Christian world’, only the foreign mission.
2. Mission as expansion of the kingdom: it is a Protestant idea, originally came from the Lutheran, named, Philip Nicholai. In his Rule of Christ (DE Reigno Christi) he put foreword a new theory concerning missions. He was convinced of the apostolic zeal or the preaching of the apostles. Through the preaching of the Apostles the gospel has come even up to India. He was also convinced of the zeal of the Catholic missionaries. He wanted to wipe away the influence of the Catholic missionaries. He said God wants to save everybody. This saving will of God is valid always and all over the world. What is this kingdom? The kingdom of God is identified with the Christian community (Church). Expansion of the kingdom means the expansion of the Church. As members of the Church we have the obligation of spreading and expanding the Church, according to him. (But today we cannot agree with this).
3. Mission as the Conversion of the Heathen: Bringing the good news to those people who do not yet know Christ or who have not yet heard the name of Jesus or those who have not acknowledged Jesus as saviour. Turn such people to Christ (convert to Christ). Proclamation must effect in the hearers a metanoia (conversion). They must experience Jesus and become children of God. Recognize Jesus as the centre of his life. It is not proselytizing, i.e., taking members from one group and making them members of another group.
Mission is certainly Christianising in theological sense, not in pure sociological sense. It is not changing one’s affiliation to one’s community. The important thing is membership in the kingdom of God and Christ. Membership in the Church does not guarantee this. Christ and his kingdom is not identical with the visible boundaries of the Church. We cannot identify the visible Church with the kingdom.
4. Mission as Process of founding new churches: St. Paul understood mission in this sense; Catholics also understood it in the same way. Church was considering from the very beginning, establishing new Christian communities. Multiplying new congregations was taken as the mission. In the catholic circle Louvein school of Missiology considered mission as establishing new Churches. This idea was over emphasised by them and less importance was given to proclamation of the gospel. In proper sense it is valid today also- establishing communities which are firmly rooted in their peoples – not simply a gathering of the new converts. It must have its own leaders and tradition and way of worship. Vatican II gives much importance to local Churches against the extreme centralisation of the Roman Church. Prior to Vatican II, emphasis was on centralisation. Founding of the new communities is theologically sound.
5. Mission as Reaching out (Contribution of Horst Burkle, Mission Theology): this idea of mission as reaching out is already found in the fathers. This means the universality of the gospel: Gospel taking root in every culture. It is not a question of expanding the boundaries, but Christianising people through gospel. A community that has no missionary out reaching programme cannot be able to sustain even its own members.
6. Mission as Herald Service: Herald is the messenger who proclaims the message of the one who has sent him to proclaim. 2 Tim 1, 11: St. Paul calls himself ‘the herald of good news’. Herald participates in the experience of the one who sent him. The Apostles were called to continue the mission in the name of Jesus. They were heralds of Jesus. The missionaries are heralds in the sense that they proclaim message of Christ given to them through the Church. Proclaiming something unique which is capable of even changing the world. The newness of the message of Christi is the criterion for its uniqueness.
All these dimensions are acceptable to the Church even today.
Mission Theology According to the Catholic Authors
We are living in a golden age of Missiology. There are a number of theological studies in mission. Vatican II says that study of mission must be included in the curriculum of seminaries and theological institutions.
As a theological discipline Missiology is only 100 years old. The first chair of Missiology was started in Edinburg in 1867 by the Protestants. Another chair in the University of Halle in 1869, held by Gustar Warneeh, who is called the father of mission theology.
From the Catholic side: Rogert Streit OMI, is the pioneer of catholic mission theology. (1875 – 1930). He was not a theologian, but he contributed much to the development of Catholic Missiology. He published a number of articles on this topic in Maria Immaculata. Later he started a movement for the scientific investigation of missionary apostolate. In 1907 he published his guiding principles of modern Missiology. He wanted missionary problems to be dealt with dogmatically, scripturally, historically and juridically. He was of the opinion that more importance must be given to missionary topics in seminaries and catholic institutes. A chair of Missiology must be started in a catholic university. He also suggested the publication of a scientific missionary review and the preparation of a bibliography. He himself started it. His work Bibliotheca Missionum. Seven volumes were published by 1930. Now there are more than that.
Joseph Schmidlin, who is called the founder of Catholic Missiology (1876 – 1944), was professor of Missiology in the university of Munster. In 1911 he started a Mission Review in Germany. He also started the university Missionary Movement. He has a number of books or Missiology. He is also known as the founder of the mission school of Munster. (The two schools of catholic mission theology are Munster School and Leuvein school. They developed Mission theology in different ways.) Schmidlin considered the non Christian world as the object of mission. We are sent to convert them. So their view is known as ‘theory of conversion’. According to them missionary action consists in proclamation, instruction, individual conversion and salvation of the souls. Through baptism the non Christians are received into the Church (when they are ready to accept Jesus). Thus small communities are formed. Later they are organised into an autonomous local Church. Later these churches would become a diocese. They insist very much on individual conversion. But they don’t neglect the establishment of the Church. For them proclamation and conversion are the first aims of missionary work. They are very much influenced by the Protestants.
He was identifying the visible Church with the kingdom of God. It is christocentric in its approach, i.e., conversion is to Christ. All over the world the non Christian religions are being disintegrated. He wanted Christianity to be established all over the world. (he considered European countries as possessors of culture.) he did not give importance to integral salvation, but concentrated only on salvation of the soul. The concept of mission that he gave was the concept of colonial mission. He was not bothered about political freedom and so on.
Louvain School: It was started by Lange SJ. It was developed by Pierre Charles SJ. They were critical of the Munster school. They started the idea of establishing the hierarchy- founding now native churches and winning of the souls of the non-Catholics. They insisted very much upon the establishment of the Church. Their theory is called theory of ‘planting the Church’ or ‘implanting the Church’. This theory is more ecclesial in its outlook. It is ecclesio centric, i.e., expanding the visible boundaries of the Church was the target of this school. (plantation Ecclesiae). They are not against conversion; but conversion is not the specific purpose of the Church.
Founding the Church is not held by scripture or the fathers. The protestants disliked this very much saying that this is a static concept. This overlooks the command of Christ. Gospel is to be preached no to the territories, but to the people and they bypass the salvation to non Christians, because they are not bothered about the non Christians this theory is a pre Vatican concept; a 19th century concept of the Church. But the catholic missiologists preferred this school to Munster school. Through mission Church is established in races and regions where the Church does not exist. Formation of hierarchy is more important, formation of the local clergy too is important. Once a local Church is established, conversion of the non Christian local people is the duty of the Church. They don’t exclude conversion and salvation of the souls, but these are not the specificity of mission. Among the theologians and Bishops of Vatican II there was divergence of opinion regarding these two schools.
Missionary Encyclicals
The encyclicals show the mind of the Church about the missionary activities.
1. Maximum Illud (Pope Benedict XV, 1919). This focuses on founding of the local churches. Pope wanted to have a revival of catholic mission, because all these were damaged by the first world war. He reminded the heads of the missions to be fatherly and gentle in their behaviour. They have to give due importance to the formation of local clergy. The missionaries have to avoid nationalism, they have to lead a holy life and study languages.
People in traditional Christian countries are to be missionary oriented. For the pope church is the kingdom of God. All the Christian faithful have to help the mission through prayer, personnel, and funds. In this document a negative approach is found. There is no awareness of social situations of the natives.
As a result of this missionary courses were started at propaganda College of Rome.
2. Rerum Ecclesiae (1926) of Pius XI: It insists very much on the formation of local clergy. Local vocation is to be fostered. Seminaries shall be set up for this purpose. He says, contemplative life among the missionaries must be fostered. There is the need of training of the catechists or the catechists are to be trained. Pope urges everyone to be zealous about the missionaries. He emphasises the importance of prayer in missionary activities. The missionary union of clergy is helpful for mission. The motivation of mission is love of God and love of neighbour. Missionary work means spreading the faith, establishing the Church and saving the soul.
3. Evangelii Precones (Preachers of the Gospel) of Pope Pius XII, 1951. to commemorate the silver Jubilee of Rerum Ecclesiae. It exhorts missionaries to love the country to which they are sent. The pope praises missionary vocation. They have to learn the languages, agriculture, medicine, history, geography etc. they have to foster education, health care, press, social justice etc. lay people are to participate in the missionary activities especially through prayer and financial support. The object of missionary activity is to bring the light of gospel to every nation and to form new Christians. The ultimate goal is to establish the Church on sound foundation among the non Christians. Quantitative aspect of progress is considered significant according to this encyclical. The encounter between gospel and culture is emphasised as an important aspect of missionary work. The attitude of the pope towards the non Christians is positive. It is a remarkable change. He also exhorts to respect everything that is noble and good.
4. Fidei Donum (Gift of Faith) of Pius XII, 1957: This is about the urgency of missionary work In Africa. Some of the principles of missionary work is seen in it. It is mainly an appeal to the universal Church to co operate in the missionary work in Africa. Missionary work is aimed at establishing the Church and - geographical expansion of the Church is stressed. This is similar to the Leuvein school’s idea.
5. Princeps Pastorum (Pastoral Principles) of Pope John XXIII, 1959: It was written at the 40th anniversary of Maximum Illud. There must be collaboration between local clergy and missionaries from other places. There must be seminaries for the formation of the local clergy in the local environment. There must be spiritual, intellectual and missiological formation given in the seminaries. The call to holiness is addressed to all – both to clergy and laity. It is through the sanctity of the preacher, the preaching is made more effective. Quality must be stressed along with the quantity. Spreading the faith is the duty of everybody in the Church. So personal and community witness through committed life is important.
6. Ad Gentes (Vatican II’s Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church): Vatican II was a trend setter in the history of the Church. According to Pope John XXIII a better understanding of the missionary activity of the Church is one of the main purposes of this council. The mission of the Church in the world is the most important theme of the council. LG and AG speaks of the mission of the Church.
There is a gradual progress in the understanding of the concept of mission.
History of Redaction: there are six stages in the redaction of AG
1. Ante preparatory stage (1959 – 61)
2. Preparatory Stage (1961 – 62)
3. Council Session I (1962)
4. Council Session II (1963)
5. Council Session III (1964)
6. Council Session IV (1965).
1.Ante Preparatory Stage: In this stage the opinion from different people were collected about the themes of discussion. A commission was made to collect opinions of the world episcopate and theologians regarding the topics. During this period neither the Bishops nor the congregation wanted to have a separate decree. Mission was considered as foreign mission lands. Missionary activity means preaching of the gospel to the non Christians.
2.Preparatory Commission: A preparatory Commission was appointed by the Holy Father. The duty of it was to organise different committees or commissions for the forth coming council. This commission was strictly under a juridical consideration. It maintained a territorial view of missions. Missionary activities are always in the mission lands. Practically nothing was done with regard to missions. But the merit was that one commission was entrusted to study the topic of missions, even though they did not want to have a separate decree.
3.Council Session I: the topic Mission did not come for discussion in the council hall even though the commission for mission had prepared a draft. In the first session liturgy was the main topic of discussion, which was very much dear to the Bishops from the mission lands, especially the use of vernacular language in liturgy etc. they did not ask for a separate decree on missionary activity. Though the bishops came without much expectation, they were hopeful after the first session. It gave a boosting to the missionary bishops.
4.Second Session: the main theme of discussion was ‘the Church’. This topic prompted many bishops to think about the mission of the Church and also the missionary activities of the Church. They asked for a decree on missionary activity of the Church. The bishops wanted to have a third session for the council.
5.Third Session: Before the starting of the third session the commission for mission and central Secretariat prepared 14 propositions instead of a decree. It was a truncated schema (mutilated schema). But this made the Bishops angry. They circulated two counter schemas rejecting the 14 propositions as “dry bones”. Holy Father said that the 14 propositions must be revised and a full decree must be prepared. When the discussion started the group was divided into two. There were only few people who stood for territorial or geographical sense of mission. Many others said that mission must be oriented to people and not to land.
6.Fourth Session: A new draft was prepared by Y. Congar and Ratzinger. They were not in favour of territorial concept of the mission. They were in favour of a theological understanding of mission. Out of 2399, 2394 bishops voted in favour of the decree. This decree gives the theological foundation for the mission of the Church. This foundation is a Trinitarian foundation. The mission of the Church is based on the Holy Trinity. (LG is the central document of Vatican II; it gives a new ecclesiological vision – an ecclesiology of Episcopal collegiality and of communion. It is more ecumenical in tone. Pope presides over charity. LG affirms that missionary activity is at the heart of the Church. The very opinion of this constitution is “Christ is the light of all nations.”, i.e., Church is upholding a missionary eschatology.
Basing on LG Ad Gentes gives us the theological vision on the mission of the Church. The Church is missionary by her very nature. LG begins, ‘Christ is the light of all nations.” It is expressive of the mind of the Church. This is the missionary mind of the church. Prior to Vatican II missionary command was known as the theological foundation of mission. AG makes clear the mission and missionary activity of the Church is based on Trinity. The mission of the Church is a sharing. The very root of the missionary activity is the God who has revealed to us as Father, Son and the Holy Spirit.
AG 2: the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature. It is from the mission of the Son and the Spirit the Church receives her missionary activity. All mission activity flow from the love of God the Father. He is the principle of everything. Salvation of humanity is the outcome of God the Father’s will. For this he sent his only son to the world. This sending is the beginning of all other sendings. Jesus was the missionary of the father. Every missionary has a mission. Jesus’ was to save the humanity. The Holy Spirit makes the Church a missionary one. Church remains as the culmination of Jesus’ mission. Jn 20, 21: the Church remains in a sent state – sent by Jesus. Church remains as the missionary of the Son. Holy Spirit animates the Church – to grow and to expand; calls everyone to Church and builds up Church, the body of Christ. The missionary character remains as the very existence of the Church. Church continues the mission of the Father and of the Son; so we call Church a missionary.
Mission is of two types: Ad Intra and Ad Extra. Ad Extra means the historical manifestation of the coming of the Son and of the procession of the Holy Spirit.
Mission is not simply a question of obeying the missionary command. It is a co operating in the divine plan to make the humanity one people of God. Even though the Trinitarian aspect is the unique contribution of Vatican II this concept is already there in the Fathers, especially in the Capadocean fathers. Henri De Lubac had written- Church is essentially missionary, her mission is none other than the first means, the missionary activity. Missionary activity is in built in the Church. Church is missionary by her very nature.
Missionary activity (Missions or Mission Ad Extra): Mission towards the people: In Vatican II there is a transition from ‘mission’ to ‘missions.’ AG 9 says that missionary activity is nothing less and nothing less than God’s will. Missions has the origin in the mission and mission has the origin in the second and third persons of Trinity the Church has only one mission – sharing in Son and Spirit. The mission of the Church is bearing witness to Christ and Spirit in the world – to bear witness to God’s love. This one mission has many spheres and aspects. One of these is known as missionary activity or missions.
In Redemptoris Missio 31, Pope John Paul II says, mission is one and undivided, having one single origin and final purpose. This mission is carried out in different way. Redemptoris Missio 41, Mission is a single, but complex reality. It develops in a variety of ways. Missionary activity is an essential and never ending mission of the Church. This is a primary and principal service which the Church must render to all, i.e., Church is to be a missionary all the time. This is a binding duty of the Church. Without missionary activity the church’s missionary dimension would be deprived of its essential meaning, because she is missionary by very nature. It is a must for the Church to be a missionary.
There is difference between missionary activity, pastoral work and ecumenism. Missionary activity is always directed to those who are outside the Church.
Goals of missionary activity: 1. Preaching the gospel and 2. establishing the Church. Evangelisation and implantation are not opposing each other; instead they are complementing to each other. Evangelisation is used here in a strict sense. Evangelisation means the missionary preaching here. It is different from preaching, catechumenate and homily. Evangelisation means the first preaching of the Word of God to non Christians. The non Christian world hears the Word for the first time; it is evangelisation. The content of this preaching: Jesus was the content of the Apostolic preaching. They were announcing the good news of Jesus. Apostles were highlighting the death and resurrection of Christ. Acts 2, 23 – 24; 3, 14 – 15;
AG 13 says, we have to preach the living God and Jesus Christ. The council does not specify the particular events in the life of Jesus such as his death and resurrection. Present Jesus as the saviour of the world. If we do not present Jesus as the saviour there is no evangelisation. How we have to know Jesus. But this knowledge always mean a comprehensive knowledge. Evangelisation is for having a contact with the person of Jesus. This contact means ‘faith’. Faith is the real response from the part of the new converts. As a result the converts have to lead a new life of faith.
AG 12: how can we bring the good news to those regions where the direct proclamation is forbidden? Here evangelisation means spreading the gospel message through other means such as the witness of life,. Charity and dialogue.
AG 11: the silent present of the Church, sometimes and somewhere, is the only presence possible for the church. Our life help them in the long run to know Christ. Living is important. Christianity is to be lived before being taught.
AG 12: Closely united with men Christians bear witness to Christ even where they are not able to proclaim Christ fully. The missionaries have to engage themselves in dialogue with non Christian environment. Genuine dialogue is a means for witnessing and evangelisation. We have to collaborate with non Christians in socio –economic fields and collaborate others in works of charity. The support of the non Christian world is to be sought of it. This will help us to have a real contact with the non Christians.
The heart of missionary activity is preaching; but witnessing, dialogue and charitable activities must precede this preaching. Preaching is a fundamental and indispensable demand. The Church is duty bound to propagate the faith.
AG 13: How to preach? The decree forbids all kinds of compulsion and triumphalistic attitudes. Gospel is good news; it must be just proposed, not compelled. In short evangelisation means, preaching of gospel so that non Christians are led to conversion and faith in the person of Jesus Christ. Those who acknowledge Jesus will be gathered together into an ecclesial community. This is the second stage of establishing the Church or implanting the Church. Through missionary preaching the implantation of the Church is achieved. Implantation means the gathering of the people of God into an ecclesial community – a community of the faithful. The essence of evangelisation is establishing the Church. Implantation means the formation of the local Eucharistic community. Mere individual conversion is not enough, but it should establish local Eucharistic communities which would in long run become an individual church. Mere instruction and baptising of the individuals is the style of Protestants. But Catholic view is different – we should go beyond mere conversion to formation Eucharistic communities. Establishing the Church does not mean acquisition of properties and construction of buildings. What is needed is permanence of faith and sacraments – build up the community in faith and sacraments and in Christian charity. “We have to form a community of faith, liturgy and love” (AG19).
There are three stages in the formation of a community: 1. catechumenate 2. sacramental life and 3. the formation of the lay leaders.
The first process involves the announcement of the gospel – Kerygmatic proclamation (first announcement) and catechesis. Chatechumenate is an initiation to the life of the Christian community. It is not simply memorisation of certain prayers and dogmas. It is the entrance into a new form of life – in morality and in sacramental life.
In the second stage: catechumenate leads to the sacraments of initiation. People are led to a journey of faith through mystegogical catechesis – catechesis on the sacraments or on the mystery of the church, gospel, liturgy and charity.
Formation of the lay leaders is the third stage for the functioning of this community. To achieve the goal of a local Church we must have a local clergy, different forms of religious life, lay leaders and local hierarchy. Lay leadership means catechists and leaders of community. Also in this Church there must be different forms of contemplative and monastic life. If all these factors are there it can be called a truly developed diocese.
The third chapter of AG is devoted to the study of the missionary activities of the particular churches or dioceses. But it is equally applicable to individual churches (Dioceses) or Sui Iuris Churches; perhaps it is more applicable to individual churches (Eg., liturgical practices – each diocese cannot have different liturgies; but an individual Church can have it.).
Growth and Position of Particular Churches
The work of implantation reaches a definite stage with the formation of a full fledged stage – when it is capable of handing on the faith to the next generation. It is not simply a gathering of people; but the gathering of worshippers. AG 19: An adapted catechesis, a liturgy in harmony with the culture of people, canonical legislation etc. should be there. In the process of implantation we must give more importance to the people of God. Formation to the community is essential for the growth of a particular Church. Implantation and the growth are two phases of the same reality. In this , the bishop has to oversee the growth of the particular Church entrusted to him. Bishop, together with the entire presbyterium, is a member of the college of Bishops. That means he has responsibility to the entire Church and to his church. It is through the Bishop apostolicity is maintained in the Church. To safeguard the faith tradition of the Church is the primary duty of the Bishop. The newly formed diocese should have an intimate communion with the universal Church.
Proper Mission: the diocese also share the same ecclesial mystery and same apostolicity. So every diocese has the duty of sending out people to proclaim the gospel. There is no difference between sending Church and receiving churches. All churches should become evangelising churches. Each diocese has two missions: inside the territory and outside the territory. The Bishops are the heralds of the good news. The diocesan clergy must co operate with the missionaries form outside. Besides, they themselves must be ready go outside for missionary activities.
AG 23: Rights of the particular churches: Each Church can have its own liturgy, theological and spiritual heritage and proper discipline. There must be co operation between the bishops and the Episcopal conferences not only between Bishops, but between churches. AG Chapter 6: the norms of this co operation between the conferences are given. The diocese must consider the formation of the missionaries as their responsibility. They must be given theological catechetical formation and it is the responsibility of the diocese to give it.
Role of the Laity
Every baptised person is called to be a missionary. The three fold missions is assigned to the laity: 1. Bear witness to Christ through their words and deeds in family, social groups and in profession. Bear witness to the faith wherever we are. 2) they are called to be men of charity towards other people. Everybody is called to be an epiphany of God’s love. 3) Preach and teach the gospel and Christian doctrines.
Inter Ecclesial Relations in the Missions
More than one catholic community may exist in the same region. India is the best example for it. In such situations all of us have the same right and duty to evangelise because the mission of evangelisation is entrusted to the Church. AG 15: Above all charity should prevail among Catholics of all traditions. This is a warning directed towards Near East and Indian situations where missionaries belonging to different traditions work together. Co operation between churches in the same mission is the duty of the Bishop. Communion and common work is essential for fruitful evangelisation.
Relationship Between Catholics and Non Catholics (Ecumenism)
An ecumenical spirit must be kept in the missions. AG 6, 12, 16, 19, 36 etc. there are references to the ecumenical spirit that must prevail among Christian denominations. All preach Christ who is the common Lord of all and also all have the same sacramental baptism. Indifference, unhealthy intermingling and rivalry are to be avoided. (AG 15). There must be co operation instead of rivalry. There must be unity between Christians, because division or disunity will damage the most holy cause of preaching the gospel. “A divided Christendom cannot fully present Christ among the non christens” (AG 15). For a non Christian there is no difference between Catholics and non Catholics. So unity is a must. AG 15 says that there must be co operation in individual and communal levels. It reflects the ecumenical spirit of the Council. A united witness only can have result in the mission.
The decree insists on teaching ecumenism. Catholics are to be instructed about the true faith of Orthodox and of the Protestants. Brotherly communion must be there between different denominations. Co operation in different realms including the rituals. There is should be co operation and mutual appreciation between different Christian churches. In mission we should have authenticity of faith and true charity. (Co operation does not mean giving up our faith.).
Non Christian Religions and the Missions
The council said that there is the possibility of salvation outside the catholic Church. LG 16 – 19 says this. Church upholds a positive view about other religions. AG does not treat this question at length. This question is dealt with in NA. but in AG there are certain remarks about the non Christian religions. The council acknowledges the work of divine grace everywhere. Hence salvation is offered to all. God, through His own Spirit, is present everywhere. There are truth and grace in the world as well as in religions (AG 9). There is the secret presence of God among the other people. AG 11, 15 says that in their national and religious traditions there is hidden the seeds of the Word. So God will provide them with the means of salvation. They also have seeds of asceticism. and contemplation. But they are not to be equated with Christianity; they are only a preparation to gospel. They are to be enlightened and purified. This is the work of the missionaries. All Christians are to enter into dialogue with the non Christian religions. Thus we can also recognize the treasures, that God has distributed among them. This dialogue is not mean for conversion; but for a mutual understanding, love and unity.
There is a change in the understanding of the catholic Church towards the other religions. It has not come all on a sudden. It was the result of theological thinking prior to Vatican II. Theologians like Paul Knitter says the God experience was there among the pagans and non Christians. Many theologians affirmed the universality of Christ and grace. Holy Spirit was at work even before the glorification of Jesus. Religions in the world are grace filled means of salvation and are positively included in God’s plan of salvation. To some extent these theologians equate other religions with Christianity. But Rahner says, the religions in the world are incomplete without Christ; hence there is the need of continued missionary activity. The full presence of Christ is lacking in other religions. The council only says that they also are in the plan of God’s salvation. It does not equate other religions with the catholic Church.
Post Conciliar Thinking about the Missionary Activities
In the council there was a shift from the concept of ‘missions’ to ‘mission’ (evangelisation). The term mission was substituted by the term ‘evangelisation’. Mission is the nature of the Church; evangelisation is the activity of the Church, by which the nature is presented before the world. “The missionary Church exists to evangelise.”, says Pope Paul VI.
The term evangelisation was not in use until post conciliar time. It was used only in the sense ‘the first announcement of the good news’, not as a substitution to the term ‘the missions’ or ‘mission’. The modern re discovery of the term took place in Protestant circles. They were using it from the very beginning of the twentieth century. ‘evangelisation’ appears about 35 time in the documents of Vatican II, but not always in the same sense, but never as a substitute for ‘mission’. The most common usage of the term in catholic Church began with the Synod of Bishops (of which the theme was ‘evangelisation of the modern world) in 1974. it was popularised by the apostolic exhortation Evangelii Nuntiandi(1975) of Pope Paul VI. Ever since its publication the term ‘mission’ was substituted by evangelisation. But the other terms also are in use. A shift from ‘mission’ to ‘evangelisation’ is a development in the post conciliar time.
Why evangelisation instead of mission? Theological and historical reasons are there: first of all the de Christianisation of Europe due to industrialisation and secularisation. They became neither Christian nor non Christian. The Church has the duty of preaching gospel to them also. They wanted to find a term which indicates preaching of the gospel to non Christians, Christians and de- Christians. Preaching to the first is called ‘mission’, to the second ‘pastoral activity’, and to the third, ‘new evangelisation’ or ‘re evangelisation’. Thus the term evangelisation came to catholic usage.
Historical reason: the post independent situation of the ‘one time colonies’ also demanded a new term. Because in the former days there was both colonisation and evangelisation. But the historians say that this is an unholy association between these two. After independence in these colonies there emerged an aggressive attitude towards the Christian missionaries because of the above mentioned fact. Many missionaries were attacked and killed by the native people. There was a hatred towards the terms like ‘missions’, ‘missionaries’, ‘mission work’ etc. missions and missionaries were seen as agents of western domination. So they were in search of a new term.
Theological reasons: Vatican II gave us a new vision of man and a new theology of the world. Even the concept of salvation was changed from mere salvation of the soul to integral salvation. The missionaries have to work for the integral salvation of the humanity. The traditional ‘missionary activity’ does not include all thse terms. So a new term was needed.
Evangelii Nuntiandi (Dec 8, 1975). It is pastorally and theologically better than encyclical Redemptoris Missio of 1990. it is a post synodal exhortation. This has taken up and developed the unfinished agenda of the Synod of 1974, which did not have a final message, because there were two divergent schools or opinions operative in the synodal hall. Instead of making a final message they gave their own suggestions to the Holy Father. On the basis of this the Holy Father made an apostolic exhortation. This is actually a papal meditation on evangelisation. It is rich in its doctrinal, theological and pastoral aspects. It is very simple and direct in its presentation. Exhortatory style is found in the document. Seven chapters with 82 articles. This was designed to mobilise the whole Church especially the evangelisers. Pope is more concerned about the pastoral aspect of evangelisation. It gives a global or wider understanding of evangelisation. The meaning of evangelisation was expanded from ‘preaching the word to the non Christians’ to all the efforts made by the Church that the faith may be spread all over. Evangelisation is the grace and vocation proper to the Church. Church exists for evangelisation. It is not remaining only on the missionary command of Christ to preach the good news to the whole world. Evangelisation is constituting its very basis for the Church for it existence. No evangelisation, no Church. Evangelii Nuntiandi has a wider conception of evangelisation apart from identifying it with one or other aspects of evangelisation (with preaching, catechesis, liberation, inculturation etc.). There is only one mission for the Church: to continue the mission of Christ; it is carried out in many ways. Everything that is designed to accomplish this mission is called evangelisation.
Evangelii Nuntiandi (Shortened to EN) 17: any partial or fragmentary definition of evangelisation distorts and impoverish the concept. Evangelisation consists of different elements. We must be aware of it. So evangelisation is a complex, rich and dynamic reality. One has to take into account all these essential elements and aspects. (EV 24.) Preaching of the word of God is only a part of evangelisation. Evangelisation is a complex process made up of different elements. These elements are complimentary and mutually enriching. (EN 17, 24, 26). To grasp the meaning of Evangelisation we have to take into consideration all these elements such as the renewal of humanity, witness, explicit adherence etc. the task of evangelisation has a particular task – the renewal of the humanity.
EN 18: definition of concept of evangelisation: To evangelise means to bring the good news into all the strata of humanity, and through its influence, transforming humanity from within and making it new through its influence. So evangelisation also includes the normal pastoral activities carried out among Christians. The ultimate goal of evangelisation is not the conversion of non Christians, but the renewal of humanity, which would take place only with an interior change of individuals.
EN presents a new concept of evangelisation. This evangelic mission is a binding duty for every Christian from which no one is exempted. In this sense both evangelisation to non Christians and pastoral activities among Christians are not different.
Essential elements of Evangelisation: 1. Witness of life by Christian communities to Christian values (EN 21). 2. clear and unequivocal proclamation of word 3. Sacramental life. The absence of one of these elements makes evangelisation meaningless. They are the constitutive elements of evangelisation.
Humanity in general is the recipient of the beneficiary of evangelisation irrespective of Christians or non Christians or territorial differences. Evangelisation is a global concept because its concern for human development and liberation, according to the new vision. (EN 31 – 38). Evangelisation is not mere proclamation of the Word, but also liberating mission. Also we are not interested in quantitative growth; but qualitative growth is the motto of the Church. Liberation and inculturation are pertaining to the aspect of evangelisation. In EN importance is given to integral salvation- spiritual as well as secular. Evangeliser is sent to redeem the humanity from all kinds of liabilities. The good new of Christ offers life and liberation from all kinds of bondages. John Paul II says, to evangelise means to proclaim the gospel. Gospel is summed up in Jesus – in his words and deeds. Jesus is the saviour and solution to every problem. Evangelisers must be faithful to the message and to the people whom he address. It must be according to the context.
Three Essential Elements of evangelisation
1. Christian witness 2, explicit proclamation of good news and 3. celebration of sacraments are traditionally understood as constitutive elements of evangelisation. So evangelisation is a tri -dimensional reality (also multi dimensional reality.). These three elements correspond to the reality of Jesus Himself – the way, truth and life. He is the way that must be witnessed to the truth that must be proclaimed and the life that must be shared.
In evangelisation the Church proclaims the death and resurrection of Christ. This proclamation of the word and participation in sacraments must be preceded by Christian testimony or Christian witness of the community and of the individual. Good news must be proclaimed first and foremost through Christian witness. Church realises her prophetic mission through proclamation, priestly mission through sacraments and royal mission through testimony of life. All these three are to be taken in a unity. They are interdependent and interactive.
The Church has paid attention from the very beginning to the aspect of living the word of God. The preacher must be a witness, who is authentic and credible in his preaching. Proclamation without witness produces no effect. He must practice what he preaches like Jesus. Bearing witness to Christ even in silence is the authentic evangelisation. It is wordless, but powerful. Even mere presence of a Christian is evangelisation. Acts 1, 8: Jesus sends the Apostles with the command of witnessing all over the world. They bore witness to Jesus. This is the model we have to follow.
Church is the agent of evangelisation. So it is the Christian community which should bear witness by being good citizens and by obeying the legitimate authorities. The gospel message is to be addressed to the human person in his totality. The proclamation touches his intelligence whereas the testimony of life appeals to the will. The former expresses, the latter impresses. The impression is more important. In order to bear witness one must have an experience of Christ and this experience must be direct, personal and spiritual.
‘Evangelise’ means bear witness to the love of the Father (EN 26). God has loved the world and calls everyone to the fullness of the world. All the Christians may not get a chance to proclaim gospel in far away places; but all will get the chance to live the gospel. In the East Syrian Church the evangelisation was through the monastic life. During that time they outnumbered Latins and Greeks put together. It is because of their missionary zeal. The Church was called church on fire. The monks did not go out, but the people came to the monasteries and the monks taught and helped the people. They translated the liturgy and scripture into the local languages. Thus people got attracted to Christianity. The religious life of prayer, penance and silence was a great evangelisation. They were aware of the presence of God in them and they lived accordingly. Real interior prayer life and contemplation led them to bear witness to the word. There was a love and craving for the Eucharist. If the missionary is not a man of prayer he cannot proclaim Christ in a credible manner. Jesus Christ is the best model of missionaries.
Witness to unity is another dimension of evangelisation. If the missionaries are divided in themselves the credibility is lost. Their proclamation will not be effective. The success of evangelisation depends upon the witness of unity. (EN). The life of the early Christian community is the best example for unity. All who believed were together; they had everything in common. Today the witness of life has become important more than ever. If the Christians fail to give witness that is a counter witness. The evangelist must be true and sincere. (EN 76), believe, live and preach. There must be unity among all these. Contradiction between life and message is the gravest scandal. Christian witness is a form of evangelisation that can be carried out anywhere and everywhere in the world.
Explicit preaching of the word.
Without preaching evangelisation is inconceivable. Sometimes the very concept of evangelisation is identified with preaching alone. Preaching is the central part of evangelisation; but it is only a constitutive element of evangelisation. So witness must be followed by a clear and unequivocal proclamation of the word of God. There is no evangelisation proper without announcing the name, life and deeds of Lord Jesus. First we have to live the faith; then announce it. Jesus was announcing the good news concerning God (EN 7). The apostles also followed the teaching mission of God. The preaching of Jesus and apostles gave birth to the Church. They preached the word of God and thus came out the Church. (EN 59). Preaching is an essential element because one is not able to come to faith without preaching. So faith formation is necessary. Faith comes through hearing of the word of God. EN 42: the word of God must be preached; faith is need for salvation for which a prior proclamation is necessary.
What would be the content of Christian proclamation? It is Jesus which is the content. There is no real evangelisation without proclaiming Jesus- his life and teachings and gospel (EN 22). Fidelity to the gospel is essential. No watering down of the gospel messages. The evangeliser must abide by the instruction given by the sender, i.e., the Church. Evangeliser is sent by the Church. So they have to proclaim the gospel and not their own idea. The evangelisers are not the authors, but the stewards of the word of God. To evangelise means to preach the mysteries of the kingdom brought by Christ. These mysteries are identifiable with Jesus himself. Jesus asked “seek the kingdom first, everything will follow.” Kingdom means His life, words and deeds together. Jesus was always presenting God the Father. He had something new in his proclamation. God is presented as compassionate, lovable faithful and merciful. The kingdom is where the will of God is respected; where there is peace, love and justice. It is not simply a question of increasing the number of baptisms. Emphasis Jesus and his mysteries. The hearer of the message of Jesus is called to an interior conversion.
Kingdom of God and the Church.
They cannot be identified easily. Church is a sign of the kingdom. We still pray, “Your kingdom come.” Church is the gathering of those who believe in Jesus. Church and kingdom, though not identical cannot be separated. Where there is kingdom, there is the Church ; where there is the Church, there is kingdom. Church’s duty is to announce the coming of the kingdom. Church is to announce the coming of the kingdom. Church is the seed and beginning of the kingdom. Church fulfils the task of spreading the kingdom through evangelisation. While announcing the kingdom the church is not substituting Christ. Church proclaims the kingdom manifested in the very person of Jesus. There is a chrostocentrism in our preaching of the kingdom. It is the test of the authenticity of evangelisation. (Christocentrism).
The good news is not primarily a set of doctrines, but an answer to the problems of the people. The essence of the word of God is Jesus. He is the answer to all the problems. There is no evangelisation at all if the name of Jesus is not proclaimed. Some object to open proclamation as a violation of the religious liberty of others. The Holy Father says that the evangeliser’s mission is to propose the message, and not imposing the message. This is to be done by avoiding coercion and persuasion of any kind. Conversion is to be won by the cross and not by the sword. Those people who do not accept or believe the gospel message also will hold this with respect and reverence. So we must respect them.
Another objection: The seeds of the word are already present in the world as well as in all cultures and in all religions. But evangelisers says that God saves humanity as he wishes, not as we propose. But he has revealed to us that the ordinary path of salvation in Jesus, who is unique. Other religions do not possess the fullness of presence of God. The evangeliser should not avoid preaching due to fear, objection from people etc. but at the same time we must respect the dignity of the persons.
From the part of the hearers: There is the necessity of preaching the gospel. Modern world is fed up with listening to spoken word. So we have to proclaim in such a way that is intelligible to the people. All occasions are to be made use of for communicating the word of God. The most important time is of the homily. Holy Qurbana is not the only time for homily, but it can be done in all the appropriate occasions.
The celebration of the Sacraments: It is an essential element of evangelisation along with witness and proclamation. Evangelisation itself is sacramental because evangelisation mission belongs to the Church, which is the primordial sacrament. Participation in the sacramental life is necessary for salvation. Every sacrament is an experience of the encounter with Christ, this encounter is the goal of evangelisation. The sacraments are in the church and of the Church. Evangelisation cannot be fully achieved by mere proclamation. But grace also is needed. This grace comes form the sacraments. Proclamation must lead us to sacraments. So we have to instruct people to receive the sacraments. EN 47 says that sacraments are not to be received in passivity. They are to be received as true sacraments of faith. We have to receive and live the sacraments.
Earlier evangelisation and sacraments were thought to be different. But both evangelisation and sacramental life go together. The sacraments will produce result only if they are received properly. So a preparation through catechesis is needed. There must be proper balance between word and sacraments. Catholics have been accused of being sacramentalists, they do not give due importance to the word of God. But now there are people who give more importance to the word discarding the celebration of the sacraments, especially that of Qurbana. There must be a proper balance between both word and the sacraments.
The Church is the sacrament of salvation. Now it is our duty to present Church as the sacrament of salvation. This can be done only through participation in the sacramental life of the Church. Sacramental life finds its fullness in the Eucharist, which is the source and summit of all evangelisation. (PO). The ultimate aim of evangelisation is to have a full Eucharistic community. EN 14: Church exists inorder to evangelise. The Church exists in order to celebrate the sacraments, especially, the Eucharist. Celebration of the sacraments is an integral part of evangelisation. The very missionary command includes both preaching and baptising. Both go together. So proclamation must lead to sacramental life. Sacramental life must be preceded by catechesis. Both are complimentary. For making a proper community both catechesis and sacraments are essential. Eucharist is the point of arrival and departure in the Church.
Evangelisation and sacraments go together. They enrich each other. There is a movement form witness to proclamation and to celebration. The fullness is attained in the celebration of the sacraments. In short Eucharist makes us true evangelisers.
Evangelisation and Liberation
The theme liberation is very prominent in present day theology. There is no contrast between evangelisation and liberation. Liberation becomes meaningful in the context of evangelisation. Evangelisation becomes fruitful in the context of liberation. Today it has become our (Church’s) responsibility to give all the people with the means necessary for leading a human life in dignity. But today there is great oppression and injustice in the world. It keeps the great majority of people in poverty. Millions of people are in a subhuman existence, living in utter poverty. This is evidently a mockery to the God the creator. There are other forms of oppression elsewhere. Such as religious fundamentalism (even in India), materialism, secularisation, liberalism etc. all these are forms of oppression in richer countries of the world. This situation prompts the missionaries of Church to re think of the content and method of evangelisation. The good news of Jesus is the message of joy and freedom. In proclaiming this message one cannot be blind towards the current problems. Human beings need to be freed from all the forms of oppression. Evangelisation includes liberation or work for liberation. This is not something that has to be discovered by Councils or encyclicals. But the awareness of this was there in the church from the beginning. E.g. Acts 5, 1 – 6: Deacons are assigned with the duty of distributing daily bread. Also Paul collected offerings from people for the Church in Jerusalem. Care for soul and body are two aspects of the same activity. They cannot be separated. The dualism came in the Church during the Constantine era. The good news was reduced only to spiritual message. The acceptance of the gospel was seen as guarantee for eternal salvation. Church was not concerned about needs of the people. It kept itself away from the economic and social realities of the people. The Church even supported the so called oppressive structure.
This separation between spiritual and temporal had great consequences. The Church lost a number of its followers. When the Council started in 1962 the Church was not at all involved in the concrete situations of the humanity. Church concentrated only on preaching gospel and saving the souls. The evangelisers were not concerned about the unjust structure of the society in socio economic realms. But there were individual missionaries who were undertaking some developmental activities. But they also were not considering it as the part of their evangelisation. This was considered only as preliminaries to the evangelisation. There was a dualistic mentality.
This situation was changed with the Vatican II. The Church was forced to think about the content and method of missionary activity. GS: The Church is concerned with the joy, grief, anguish of the community. The Church affirmed the dignity of all persons. Church expressed her solidarity with all persons irrespective of cast, creed etc. especially with the weaker sections of that society. Church became conscious of the modern problems. It is reflected in the decree on missionary activities.
Works of liberation and development are not mere preparation for evangelisation. But both go together. Both are parts of the same mission of the Church, which is the mission of Jesus Christ. This idea has been reiterated by other papal teachings such as Populorum Progressio of pope Paul VI, Documents of Medellin in 1968(Latin American Bishops’ Conference), apostolic letter Octogessima Adveniens of Pope Paul VI, The synod of Bishops of 1971. The synod discussed mainly ‘justice in the world’. The synod asserted that liberation is the constitutive part of evangelisation. The synod of Bishops of 1974 also discussed the theme of Justice. It was mainly on evangelisation. In this synod it is the Latin American Bishops who spoke for liberation. The Asian African Bishops were not interested in the use of the term ‘liberation’. They preferred the word ‘development’. The proclamation of the gospel must be applicable for the society. The theme of liberation should be situated in the global concept of evangelisation. There are millions who live in subhuman levels. The Church’s mission is an integral one, which includes both spiritual and temporal dimensions. They cannot be reduced to mere sociological or political activity. Integral liberation must include the whole man (EN 33). The supernatural dimension of the liberation of the Church must not be undermined. If we are not proclaiming the liberation through Jesus we are not doing justice. We also must not over look the temporal and economic grounds. Liberation must not be limited to some aspects alone. The whole person in all aspects should be the concern for us. The objective of liberation taken up by the Church is not purely development in the temporal order, but an integral liberation of the person. Give due importance to both temporal and supernatural orders. There is distinction between supernatural and temporal, evangelisation and liberation. But there is no separation between them. They go together. The Church’s proclamation must be centred on the kingdom of God, combining both dimensions together.
In our work of liberation Church has to depend on evangelical principles and Christian ideals. Nothing other should control our activity such as armed revolution. Anything and everything cannot be labelled as Christian. Human liberation of the Church is identical with salvation in Jesus Christ. Political liberation is not the evangelical mission of the Church. Our action for liberation is rooted in our own vision on the man and world. Any vision of man and history which undermines the role of God is unacceptable to us. God saves the world through Jesus Christ. The person in his entirety is the object of redemption. The Church carries out this in two levels. Evangelisation and liberation – which go together. No violence or armed revolution to safe oppressed people is allowed. Violence has no role in our mission. (EV 37). Violence is unchristian and against the gospel. Violence always provokes another violence. It brings forth another form of oppression.
Use of force or violence could be justified according to the situation but in general all kinds of violence is forbidden. A mere structural change does not bring a change at all change is necessary for stopping oppression. But prior to the structural a change a change of heart must be effected. The aim of Church must be this. The most perfect structures and ideal systems become totally inhuman if the mentality of the people is not right. An interior change is needed for any change.
The Church carries out her mission of liberation in collaboration with all persons of good will. The very proclamation of the Christian message is important. The Church conscientises the faithful with regard to their duty of involving themselves in the work of liberation. Involvement of all sections of people of God is encouraged by the Church. We also have to conscientise the people who are oppressed. The Church has to instil in them the idea of liberation as well as hope for a liberation. We can do all these things based own Church’s own profound and comprehensive teachings. The social doctrines of the Church are rooted in Church’s vision of human person and the history. The persons and their welfare is of great importance for the Church. Our work of liberation is to be associated with our work of evangelisation. He guides the liberators through the right path. The liberation the evangelisers proclaim is the same what Christ had proclaimed. There are certain profound links between evangelisation and liberation. They are of there levels: anthropological, theological and evangelical. The gospel has to be announced to the people in the concrete situation. The situations are liable to change in all the realms – social, political, economic, cultural etc. These changes affects them profoundly. So the evangelisers has to study all these changes and the sciences related to these realms, so that the evangelisation can be made concrete.
The theological link arises because of the intimate relation between creation and redemption. Order of creation and order of redemption are a unity. So also we have to consider the human being as a unity – not as a body and as a soul. Both are related to each other. Only through the mystery of redemptive incarnation we can achieve liberation.
Evangelical link: there is no love of God without love of neighbour which includes peace, equality, truth, justice etc. we proclaim the gospel out of our love towards God, which should be reflected in our relation towards other people. Liberation must be seen as a constitutive part of the evangelising mission of the Church.
Evangelisation and Inculturation
It is one of the prominent themes of EN. In this exhortation Pope does not use ‘inculturation’. Instead of that he uses ‘evangelisation of cultures’. Culture is something associated to the whole life of the people. Every missionary has to encounter the culture. Here comes the relevance of inculturation. Culture and religion are very closely related in the life of the people. E.g., In India Hindu culture is important. It is closely related to religion also. But in the west there is a certain degree of separation between religion and culture. So the problem the Church faces is different in the East and in the West.
Culture is a complex and dynamic reality. GS 53: the Magna Carta of the gospel – culture encounter. It tells of the relationship between Church and the world. According to this culture is the way of life of the people. It varies form people to people. There are a variety of cultures in the world. Culture is very much a part of human existence. Culture is the total life way of a people.(says Kluhohn). The social legacy the individual acquires form his group. Culture is a complex whole which includes all the capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a community.
Gospel – Culture Encounter
It is not something new. Jesus himself asked his disciples to go and preach gospel to all people irrespective of culture. In every culture there are positive and negative elements. No culture is alien to the gospel. The gospel is not bound to any particular culture at all. But the missionaries considered their own culture as the culture. The mission of the church is universal, not bound to any particular culture.
Till Vatican II we were following a defective missionary methodology. The Post reformation missionary activities have been carried out almost all by the Western missionaries of the Roman Church, because due to historical and political reasons most of the eastern churches were not in a position capable of taking up missionary activities. Western missionaries were the offshoot of colonial spirit and power. But a number of local churches grew up in Asia and Africa due to the missionary activities. But these local churches were not indigenous. Tighter with the faith the missionaries were imparting the western culture also. Christianity was practically identified with west and Especially with Rome.
Very often the newly converted people were cut away from the local cultures. Christianity and Christian faith grew as a plant in a flower pot, in a soil borrowed from somewhere else, with no roots in the soil of the land. Vatican II was aware of its defects. So it gave some proposals for gospel – culture encounter.
In EN the Pope speaks of evangelisation of cultures mainly. Then he speaks of evangelisation proper. I the evangelisation process we have to take into account the culture also. The evangelisers must have a positive outlook towards non Christian cultures and religions. The evangelisers have to remain faithful to the essential content of the gospels.
Pope says that we have to distinguish between both eastern and western situations. In the East culture and religion go together. But in the West there is a separation between culture and religion. The goal of evangelisation is the interior change and renewal of humanity through the power of the gospel, and not mere conversion. This will take place only when the culture is deeply permiated by the good news. It is evident that people are deeply attached to their own culture. All cultures and religions possess the seeds of God’s word. So we must have a positive attitude to all religions. EN 53: They are in preparation of the gospel. The goal of evangelisation is the renewal of humanity. It is also the gathering of local people for the celebration – taking into consideration all the cultural elements.
The local Church has to work for further evangelisation in a language that would be understood by them. The impact of evangelisation on the culture and people is called inculturation ad extra.- Inculturation from outside. Effect of the presence of the gospel in the community is called evangelisation ad intra – a new form of living. Gospel must be spread in a language that is understood to them. (language means language in anthropological and cultural sense. Language symbolises the feelings and experience of the people, their way of looking at things etc. real inculturation is impossible without proclaiming the gospel in the local language.
Different sectors of inculturation: Liturgical expressions, catechesis, theological formulation, church structures and ministry. Inculturation must cover all these areas. AG stresses much on the incorporation of asceticism and contemplation. They are to be taken up by the evangelists. The process of evangelization must embrace the whole sphere of life. What is essential is gospel culture encounter. Gospel must penetrate into the culture. All encounters are in need of an encounter with the gospel even in the traditional Christian communities. A renewed encounter is needed. It is the duty of evangelizers to bring the gospel to the traditional cultures. As a result there will emerge new cultures and gospel values. (Christianity failed to grow in the soil of the land especially in India and Africa. They are considered foreigners. It is due to the failure in assimilating the cultures).
Who is responsible for the inculturation? According to EN the Bishops and the hierarchy are responsible for the local healthy inculturation. The success of inculturation depends on the capacity of the missionaries to integrate the cultural aspects. The evangelizers must have an open mind – ready to enter in dialogue with people of other faith. Evangelization of cultures will lead to healthy theological pluralism. Incluturation must come from the daily life of the people. It must not be something imposed upon.
Purification of cultures: Evangelizing the cultures means transforming the cultures. All cultures in the world is in need of purification and redeeming, because all elements of a culture may not be equally valuable or may not be Christian. All cultures are affected by the sinful humanity. Therefore they are to be purified and transformed. We have to get rid of the evil elements. People would think that theirs is the best and only way of a good life. But it is not right. The gospel must encounter every culture and enrich them. Cultures must undergo a process of passion, death and resurrection. Culture need to be regenerated. But we should not destroy anything that is noble in the cultures. The good elements are to be retained and enriched by the encounter with the gospel.
Indian Christians are accused of inactive in the field of mission. Because India still remains unchristian to a great extend. But the very fact that a Christian community exists even today in the name of St. Thomas is a counter argument of it. There are also proofs for that Christianity was there all over India. There are sound archaeological evidence for it. That means the missionary activities have been made here either by St. Thomas Christians or by the East Syrians. The East Syrians are famous for their missionary zeal in the past. They Christianized India, China, and a great part of Asia. (Hsianfu monument discovered form China is a proof of this. In this the history of missionary activity in China is encarved – ca 681. both in Syriac and in Chinese.). We believe that we have some hierarchical relation with the East Syrian Church form the fourth century. In the document found in Asian countries contain the names of Thomas Christians. That means we also had missionary activities.
The Christian communities in India might have been vanished due to war or such other events. Many of these communities called themselves Thomas Christians. Many of the people baptized by Francis Xavier were once believers in Christ, who might have been reverted to Hinduism due to lack of pastoral activity. The Christian in India were devotees of St. Thomas. Even today there are groups in North India called Thomse who are non Hindus.
St. Thomas Christians hold the belief that everybody will be saved according to their belief. (marga). So they were not insisting upon conversion. Conversion is unthinkable for Hindus also.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ad Gentes
Evangelii Nuntiandi – Pope Paul VI (1975)
Redemptoris Missio (1990)
Ecclesia in Asia (1999)
Sebastian Karottemprayil ed., Following Christ in Mission
Mission for the Third Millennium, Rome (1993)
September 26, 2007
ICH - 10. Non-Catholic Christians in India
Orthodox Christianity in India
The incident Coonan Cross Oath of 1653, led to the division of the Syrian Christians in to two: Pazhayakoottukar and Puthenkoottukar. The Puthenkoottuakar “consecrated” archdeacon Thomas as Metropolitan Marthoma I by 12 priests laying their hands on the head of the archdeacon. They then send appeals to the Antiochene, Babylonian and Alexandrian Churches for Episcopal assistance. Mar Gregorios of Jerusalem arrived here in 1665 as directed by the Antiochene Patriarch. Mar Thomas I carried out the administrative functions in the Church until his death in 1620. After the death of Mar Gregorios, in 1671, a number of prelates in succession arrived in Kerala from Syria. These prelates showed a tendency to have a share in the administration of the Church. The stationing of a British resident in Travancore, Col. Munroe, who took a keen interest in the ancient Church in Kerala led to the “Mission of Help” from the Church Missionary Society in London coming to Kerala. Unlike the early missionaries the missionaries who came later wanted to reform the Syrian Church. As a result differences of opinion arose between the Syrian bishops and the missionaries. In 1836 the Syrians met in a Synod at Mavelikara rejected the proposal of reform put forward by the missionaries on the excuse that they were unable to do anything in the matter of faith without the permission of the Patriarch of Antioch. This position of the Syrian bishops as stated in the document is known as the “Mavelikar Padiyola” The consecration of Mathews Mar Athanasius as Metropolitan by the Patriarch of Antioch in 1843 strengthened the tendency of the Patriarchate of Antioch to involve itself in the affairs of the Malankara Syrian Church. It led to the eventual rise of two groups in the Puthenkoor. The Patriarch subsequently consecrated Mar Duionysius as metropolitan at the request of the Syrian Church who opposed Mathews Mar Athanasius for his reformist relations. The rift between the two Mar Atanasius and Mar Dionysius led to the arrival of the Patriarch Peter III in Kerala. In 1876, the Patriarch convened a Synod at Mulamthuruthy. This synod marked the commencement of the period of Antiochene supremacy over the Malankara Syrian Church. This situation continued until 1912 when a powerful group in the church which desired for freedom from Antiochene hegemony secured a relocation of the Catholicate of the East in Malankara. An equally powerful section within the church wanted to continue its allegiance to the Patriarchate of Antioch. This led to the division of the Malankara Orthodox Church in 1912 into two Churches, one known as Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church under the Catholicate of the East and the other known as the Malankara Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) Church under the Patriarch of Antioch. This division of the Church in 1912 marked the beginning of a prolonged litigation between the two churches on the validity of the Catholicate established in 1912 and the constitution adopted in 1934. In the course of this era of litigation, peace and unity prevailed in the Church from 1958 to 1971 on the basis of a court verdict of 1958. In 1971, however, clashes occurred leading to the revival of litigation.
Mar Thoma Church
In 1806/1807, chaplains of East India Company visited Thiruvithamcore and Kochi. Col. Munroe, resident of the British government also showed much interest in the affairs of the Syrians of Malabar. He helped Ittoop ramban to start a seminary at Kottayam in 1813. With his help, the Church Missionary Society of London send missionaries to inject new life into the Syrian Church. The missionaries arrived in 1816. They started English medium schools and published the Bible in Malayalam. The Synod of Mavelikara 1818 officially decided to have close cooperation between the missionaries and the Syrians. (Pulikottil Mar Dionysius 1817-1818 and Punnatharayil Mar Dionysius 1818-1825). During the period of Cheppad Mar Dionysius tension developed. A synod was convened at Mavelikara in 1836. The Synod decided not to accept the changes and that was the end of the relationship. A group in the Syrian Church led by Palakunnath Abraham malpan of Maraman (1796-1845) who was a professor at Kottayam seminary and Kaithayil Geevarghese malpan of Puthuppally stood for reforms. Abraham Malpan translated Qurbana into Malayalam and eliminated prayers for the dead in 1837. He removed images from the church. His actions infuriated the Metropolitan and the latter refused to ordain the deacons who worked with the Malpan. This created need for a bishop. He sent his nephew deacon Mathew to the Jacobite Patriarch at Mardin, Syria. He got himself consecrated bishop and reached Malabar in 1843. The new bishop Mathews Mar Athanasius strongly carried forward the reform ideas.
Mar Dionysius invited the Patriarch to Malabar. Mathews Mar Athanasius with the suopport of the Thoziyoor bishop got his nephew a son of Abraham Malpan, consecrated bishop- Thomas Mar Athanasius in 1869. Patriarch Peter III came to Malabar and convened a synod in 1876. It condemned Mathews Mar Athanasius and his colleagues. Mar Athanasius argued that the Patriarch had no power to do so. Thomas Mar Athanasius succeeded him in 1877. There were litigations between the groups. The final verdict of 1899 went in favour of the Patriarch. Mar Athanasius got the support of only three churches, Kozhenchery, Maraman and Kottarakara. They were called the “reformed party”. Thomas Mar Athanasius died in 1893. He had not ordained a successor. The bishop of Thozhiyoor Church, Geevarghese Mar Koorilos consecrated the younger brother of Mar Athanasius as Titus I. He was succeeded by Titus II 1899-1944, during whose time the reformed group adopted the name Mar Thomas Syrian Church.
In 1952, K.N. Daniel spearheaded a split in the Church forming St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India.
Malabar Independent Syrian Church (Thozhiyoor)
It was founded by Kattumangattu Abraham Mar Koorilose, Metropolitan of Malankara in 1772. He was consecrated by Mar Gregorios of Jerusalem at Mattanchery. He could not live in Travancore because of opposition from Church leaders. He went to Malabar and settled at Anjoor in Thrissur District.
Assyrian Church of the East
Rocos, Mellus, Mar Abdiso and so on.
Metran kakshi vs Bava kakshi 1974-1995
Protestant Churches in India
National Council of Churches NCCI, an autonomous inter-confessional organization of Indian Churches was established in 1914.
Anglican Church of India
CMS missionaries came to India in 1814 and reached Kerala in 1816. They did not get cooperation from the orthodox Christians. This situation made them to start evangelization among the non-Christians of Kerala: Cheramar (Pulaya), Sambavar (Paraya), Sidhanar (Kurava) and Arayans (Hill tribes). Rev. George Mathan Kasisa of Mallappilly helped them. On September 6, 1854 was the baptism of the first family and many followed. In 1879, a diocese was formed for travancore and Kochin with Kottayam as headquarters. (80% =non Chriatians converts). Churches joined together to establish the Church of South India in 1947.
In 1964, the non Christian converts decided to withdraw from CSI. They reestablished the Anglican Church on August 24.
Baptist Churches
The Baptist Church was formally identified in early 1600s in England (Baptists rejected infant baptism and received believers by total immersion in water). William Carey, an English missionary came to Calcutta on November 11, 1893 and pioneered Baptist movement. He started Serampur College and translated the Bible into several Indian languages. He worked along with Raja Ram Mohan Roy to eradicate Sati. Later the Baptist movement was introduced to Andrapradesh, Karnataka and many other regions including Delhi and Kerala.
They share with other Christians a belief in “the holy Catholic Church” but they differ regarding its visible manifestations. Most Churches were territorial, indiscriminately embracing all believers with in a given area regardless of spiritual qualifications. Baptists to the contrary, held that membership in visible churches should be limited to those who were members of the true people of God = Visible churches are made up of visible saints. When convinced of the authenticity of the testimony of the applicants for membership who relate their experience of God’s Grace before the entire congregation, the church “by a judgment of charity” approved the person for baptism. Once admitted to the church, a member accepted covenant obligations and is subject to the discipline of the congregation. Denying that the universal church is embodied in a single, concrete institution, they insist that it is visible primarily in particular congregations. It is a late offshoot of English reformation. They follow the custom of adult baptism by means of immersion.
CNI
Communion of six churches of North India was born on November 29, 1970 at Nagpur. CSI in 1947.
Lurtheran Church
Martin Luther 1483-1546 Augustinian monk. Peace of Augsburg (1555) guaranteed the conquest of Germany for the Lutheranism. The various princes were empowered to establish either Catholic or Lutheran religion within their realms. State churches.
Outside Germany most radical and successful in Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden and Denmark
Pentacostal Churches
A fundamentalist group of cults, sects and denominations that form the more radical branch of the holiness movement. They are characterized by a distinctive emphasis on sanctification that includes a conversion process in which an adult makes a decision or has a conversion experience; a cleansing from sin, or justification; a baptism of the Holy Spirit as an instantaneous spiritual transformation separate from and following justification; and as a specific characteristic, a renewal of the gifts of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4) consequent to baptism.
World interest in the Pentecostal movement stems from the sensational accounts of a prayer meeting held in Los Angeles, California on April 9, 1906, at which a Negro boy began to speak with tongues.
The Bible is the sole doctrinal authority, interpreted from a fundamental position. Worship is informal rather than ritualistic or liturgical and freedom is encouraged. A large degree of emotionalism often permeates the devotional life of Pentecostals. Missionary work is vigourously carried on. Pentecostal churches seem to attract people of limited education, social standing and wealth.
The incident Coonan Cross Oath of 1653, led to the division of the Syrian Christians in to two: Pazhayakoottukar and Puthenkoottukar. The Puthenkoottuakar “consecrated” archdeacon Thomas as Metropolitan Marthoma I by 12 priests laying their hands on the head of the archdeacon. They then send appeals to the Antiochene, Babylonian and Alexandrian Churches for Episcopal assistance. Mar Gregorios of Jerusalem arrived here in 1665 as directed by the Antiochene Patriarch. Mar Thomas I carried out the administrative functions in the Church until his death in 1620. After the death of Mar Gregorios, in 1671, a number of prelates in succession arrived in Kerala from Syria. These prelates showed a tendency to have a share in the administration of the Church. The stationing of a British resident in Travancore, Col. Munroe, who took a keen interest in the ancient Church in Kerala led to the “Mission of Help” from the Church Missionary Society in London coming to Kerala. Unlike the early missionaries the missionaries who came later wanted to reform the Syrian Church. As a result differences of opinion arose between the Syrian bishops and the missionaries. In 1836 the Syrians met in a Synod at Mavelikara rejected the proposal of reform put forward by the missionaries on the excuse that they were unable to do anything in the matter of faith without the permission of the Patriarch of Antioch. This position of the Syrian bishops as stated in the document is known as the “Mavelikar Padiyola” The consecration of Mathews Mar Athanasius as Metropolitan by the Patriarch of Antioch in 1843 strengthened the tendency of the Patriarchate of Antioch to involve itself in the affairs of the Malankara Syrian Church. It led to the eventual rise of two groups in the Puthenkoor. The Patriarch subsequently consecrated Mar Duionysius as metropolitan at the request of the Syrian Church who opposed Mathews Mar Athanasius for his reformist relations. The rift between the two Mar Atanasius and Mar Dionysius led to the arrival of the Patriarch Peter III in Kerala. In 1876, the Patriarch convened a Synod at Mulamthuruthy. This synod marked the commencement of the period of Antiochene supremacy over the Malankara Syrian Church. This situation continued until 1912 when a powerful group in the church which desired for freedom from Antiochene hegemony secured a relocation of the Catholicate of the East in Malankara. An equally powerful section within the church wanted to continue its allegiance to the Patriarchate of Antioch. This led to the division of the Malankara Orthodox Church in 1912 into two Churches, one known as Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church under the Catholicate of the East and the other known as the Malankara Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) Church under the Patriarch of Antioch. This division of the Church in 1912 marked the beginning of a prolonged litigation between the two churches on the validity of the Catholicate established in 1912 and the constitution adopted in 1934. In the course of this era of litigation, peace and unity prevailed in the Church from 1958 to 1971 on the basis of a court verdict of 1958. In 1971, however, clashes occurred leading to the revival of litigation.
Mar Thoma Church
In 1806/1807, chaplains of East India Company visited Thiruvithamcore and Kochi. Col. Munroe, resident of the British government also showed much interest in the affairs of the Syrians of Malabar. He helped Ittoop ramban to start a seminary at Kottayam in 1813. With his help, the Church Missionary Society of London send missionaries to inject new life into the Syrian Church. The missionaries arrived in 1816. They started English medium schools and published the Bible in Malayalam. The Synod of Mavelikara 1818 officially decided to have close cooperation between the missionaries and the Syrians. (Pulikottil Mar Dionysius 1817-1818 and Punnatharayil Mar Dionysius 1818-1825). During the period of Cheppad Mar Dionysius tension developed. A synod was convened at Mavelikara in 1836. The Synod decided not to accept the changes and that was the end of the relationship. A group in the Syrian Church led by Palakunnath Abraham malpan of Maraman (1796-1845) who was a professor at Kottayam seminary and Kaithayil Geevarghese malpan of Puthuppally stood for reforms. Abraham Malpan translated Qurbana into Malayalam and eliminated prayers for the dead in 1837. He removed images from the church. His actions infuriated the Metropolitan and the latter refused to ordain the deacons who worked with the Malpan. This created need for a bishop. He sent his nephew deacon Mathew to the Jacobite Patriarch at Mardin, Syria. He got himself consecrated bishop and reached Malabar in 1843. The new bishop Mathews Mar Athanasius strongly carried forward the reform ideas.
Mar Dionysius invited the Patriarch to Malabar. Mathews Mar Athanasius with the suopport of the Thoziyoor bishop got his nephew a son of Abraham Malpan, consecrated bishop- Thomas Mar Athanasius in 1869. Patriarch Peter III came to Malabar and convened a synod in 1876. It condemned Mathews Mar Athanasius and his colleagues. Mar Athanasius argued that the Patriarch had no power to do so. Thomas Mar Athanasius succeeded him in 1877. There were litigations between the groups. The final verdict of 1899 went in favour of the Patriarch. Mar Athanasius got the support of only three churches, Kozhenchery, Maraman and Kottarakara. They were called the “reformed party”. Thomas Mar Athanasius died in 1893. He had not ordained a successor. The bishop of Thozhiyoor Church, Geevarghese Mar Koorilos consecrated the younger brother of Mar Athanasius as Titus I. He was succeeded by Titus II 1899-1944, during whose time the reformed group adopted the name Mar Thomas Syrian Church.
In 1952, K.N. Daniel spearheaded a split in the Church forming St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India.
Malabar Independent Syrian Church (Thozhiyoor)
It was founded by Kattumangattu Abraham Mar Koorilose, Metropolitan of Malankara in 1772. He was consecrated by Mar Gregorios of Jerusalem at Mattanchery. He could not live in Travancore because of opposition from Church leaders. He went to Malabar and settled at Anjoor in Thrissur District.
Assyrian Church of the East
Rocos, Mellus, Mar Abdiso and so on.
Metran kakshi vs Bava kakshi 1974-1995
Protestant Churches in India
National Council of Churches NCCI, an autonomous inter-confessional organization of Indian Churches was established in 1914.
Anglican Church of India
CMS missionaries came to India in 1814 and reached Kerala in 1816. They did not get cooperation from the orthodox Christians. This situation made them to start evangelization among the non-Christians of Kerala: Cheramar (Pulaya), Sambavar (Paraya), Sidhanar (Kurava) and Arayans (Hill tribes). Rev. George Mathan Kasisa of Mallappilly helped them. On September 6, 1854 was the baptism of the first family and many followed. In 1879, a diocese was formed for travancore and Kochin with Kottayam as headquarters. (80% =non Chriatians converts). Churches joined together to establish the Church of South India in 1947.
In 1964, the non Christian converts decided to withdraw from CSI. They reestablished the Anglican Church on August 24.
Baptist Churches
The Baptist Church was formally identified in early 1600s in England (Baptists rejected infant baptism and received believers by total immersion in water). William Carey, an English missionary came to Calcutta on November 11, 1893 and pioneered Baptist movement. He started Serampur College and translated the Bible into several Indian languages. He worked along with Raja Ram Mohan Roy to eradicate Sati. Later the Baptist movement was introduced to Andrapradesh, Karnataka and many other regions including Delhi and Kerala.
They share with other Christians a belief in “the holy Catholic Church” but they differ regarding its visible manifestations. Most Churches were territorial, indiscriminately embracing all believers with in a given area regardless of spiritual qualifications. Baptists to the contrary, held that membership in visible churches should be limited to those who were members of the true people of God = Visible churches are made up of visible saints. When convinced of the authenticity of the testimony of the applicants for membership who relate their experience of God’s Grace before the entire congregation, the church “by a judgment of charity” approved the person for baptism. Once admitted to the church, a member accepted covenant obligations and is subject to the discipline of the congregation. Denying that the universal church is embodied in a single, concrete institution, they insist that it is visible primarily in particular congregations. It is a late offshoot of English reformation. They follow the custom of adult baptism by means of immersion.
CNI
Communion of six churches of North India was born on November 29, 1970 at Nagpur. CSI in 1947.
Lurtheran Church
Martin Luther 1483-1546 Augustinian monk. Peace of Augsburg (1555) guaranteed the conquest of Germany for the Lutheranism. The various princes were empowered to establish either Catholic or Lutheran religion within their realms. State churches.
Outside Germany most radical and successful in Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden and Denmark
Pentacostal Churches
A fundamentalist group of cults, sects and denominations that form the more radical branch of the holiness movement. They are characterized by a distinctive emphasis on sanctification that includes a conversion process in which an adult makes a decision or has a conversion experience; a cleansing from sin, or justification; a baptism of the Holy Spirit as an instantaneous spiritual transformation separate from and following justification; and as a specific characteristic, a renewal of the gifts of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4) consequent to baptism.
World interest in the Pentecostal movement stems from the sensational accounts of a prayer meeting held in Los Angeles, California on April 9, 1906, at which a Negro boy began to speak with tongues.
The Bible is the sole doctrinal authority, interpreted from a fundamental position. Worship is informal rather than ritualistic or liturgical and freedom is encouraged. A large degree of emotionalism often permeates the devotional life of Pentecostals. Missionary work is vigourously carried on. Pentecostal churches seem to attract people of limited education, social standing and wealth.
ICH - 9. Towards Hierarchy
9. 1. Thrissur Vicariate
John Menachery was born on August 1, 1857, at Njarackal. – negative report of Zaleski & positive report of Medlycott. Medlycott thought of an auxiliary bishop. He was consecrated bushop in Kandy by Zaleski on October 25, 1896. Returned to Malabar On December 8, 1896.
There were 64117 Catholics, [5260 Mellusians, 19881 Jacobites] 62 parishes, 13 Chapels, 79 priests and 12 clerics. He tried his best to collect money from individuals and asked the parishes to contribute 5% of their income. He appointed Fr. Varghese Mampilly from Njarakal as his VG.
9.1.1. Our Lady of Lourdes Church
According to the 1890 settlement it was given to the Syrians till they regained the Our lady of Doloures . In 1904 Menachery tried to get it back by a lawsuit. But the supremecourt judged it in favour of Mellusians. Eventually emerged a mutual agreement between Archbishop of Varapuzha and the Vicar Apostolic of Thrissur. By which the archbishop renounced his right over the church and the vicar apostolic paid Rs.1000 as compensation. It was approved by Propaganda Fide, on January 10, 1905.
9.1.2. Dispute over Melarcode church/ Question of Jurisdiction over Syrian Settlers outside Malabar
Melarcode Syrian settlers were outside the territory of the Syrian vicariates. There were 330 Christians. Melarcode was 26 km? from Thrissur and 58 km? from Coimbatore. They built a church and their spiritual care was taken by a Syrian priest from Thrissur, during the time of Medlycott. In 1896, Bishop of Coimbatore, Msgr. Bardov wanted to get the church under his jurisdiction. He took an indirect way. He wrote to the delegate Apostolic, Zaleski, that he could hand over the parish to Menachery. Zaleski objected to it pointing out its consequences. For him it was a question of principle and wrote to Rome “If the Congregation wanted to give the Syrians jurisdiction to those churches which stood outside of their vicariate as similar to that of Padroado, that would have disastrous effects to the Latin missionary works in India.” If Melacode was given, Zaleski forewarned, all the Syrian settlements in India would ask the same. Settlements would increase due to the development of railway and commerce. The Congregation decided as directed by Zaleski. An appeal by Menachery did not have any effect.
9.1.3. Question of a Coadjutor to Menachery
Menachery wrote to the Delegate Apostolic to recommend his desire to have a coadjutor. Menachery suggested Fr. John Ukken to be his coadjutor (1915). The news of the suggestion caused some people to send petitions against Fr. Ukken. Zaleski found that their petitions were organized by certain Fr. Paul Alappatt, who was ambitious. Zaleski said that Menachery preferred Fr. Ukken, who was young and did not have enough administrative and ministerial experience because he knew how to obey. [Later in 1918, Zaleski accused Menachery of changing Fr. Ukken from the Cathedral to a remote parish] Zaleski suggested Fr. Cyriac Vetticappilly. “Before his death, Msgr. Makil was telling in tears, that it was because of his human weakness that he blocked his nomination to episcopate of vicariate of Changanassery. Nobody was nominated as coadjutor, and Menachery died on December 19,1919.
9.1.4. Fr. Antony Puthussery, administrator
According to the testament of Menachery, Fr. Antony Puthussery took charge as the administrator. Delegate Apostolic Biondi was surprised to see the Vicar General was not nominated as the administrator. Besides, puthussery was also young. There were petitions pro and contra. The basic reason behind the accusations was a kind of antagonism among the priests who were educated in seminaries of Kandy, Puthenpally and that of Urban College Rome. Each group wished their own candidate to be the next vicar apostolic. Fr. Puthussery was from Puthenpally. The delegate made an inquiry and Fr. Antony Kavungal was called to Kottayam for collecting information. He stood for Fr. Puthussery. After some time, Mar Alexander Choolaparampil was consulted and he confirmed the presence of hereditary sickness in the family of Fr. Puthussery (white spots especially in the hands.) Some family members were punished because of criminality and delinquency. The Three vicars apostolic were reluctant to his nomination. Thus his name was removed from the list. The three vicars apostolic and the archbishop of Varapuzha Bernard of Jesus, Delegate Apostolic Msgr. Pisani and Zaleski were asked to give a list of candidates. According to Zaleski the only way to remove any agitation or discontent of the factions was to appoint someone outside of the vicariate. In 1921, the Congregation took three from the names they received: Frs. Cyriac Vetticappillil, Francis Vazhappilly and Mathew Thekkekara and made further inquiry. On March 21, 1921, Fr. Francis Vazhappilly was chosen as the new vicar apostolic.
9.2. Changanassery
Makil was appointed as the first vicar apostolic of Changanassery. (Born on April 4, 1851 at Manjoor. Stdied at Puthenpally, ordained on May 30, 1874, taught Syriac in Puthenpally for two yeares, then worked as a parish priest before was appointed the secretary to Marcelline of Varapuzha. Lavigne appointed him VG for the Southists.) His appointment caused great disappointment among the Northists. He tried to introduce a system of Chitty Fund . He continued the work of the propagation of faith in the vicariate which was initiated by Lavigne. There were seven churches in the vicariate for the conversion of Parayas and Pulayas. Makil called a meeting of all the vicars and trustees on December 17,1897 and discussed about raising of a fund for the development of St. John Berchmans H.S.The Northists argued that they would not pay anything until the desire of the community to have a Northist bishop was realized. Makil was so much disappointed.
9.2.1. 1896-1911 a period of agitation
The proximate cause for the agitation is the appointment of Mar Makil, a Southist as the vicar apostolic of the vicariate. Northists in general wished Nidhiry to be the vicar apostolic. The Northists started sending petitions to the Congregation, Delegation and to the Holy Father. On December 10, 1996 Makil arrived in Changanassery. Due to the letter from the prefect of PF which commanded the presence of all the Northist churches for the reception under pain of excommunication, representatives from all parishes reached. A complete representation of the Northists was interpreted by the Congregation as an expression of the strength and unity of the Northists. Petitions were sent to Rome for a Northist Bishop. Zaleski visited Malabar in 1903 and openly appreciated Makil. This caused more dissatisfaction. In some petitions they suggested to divide the vicariate: one with the name Kottayam for the Southists and to appoint a new vicar apostolic for the Northists. Southists formed Knanaya Committee and the Northists formed Samudayaikya Sangham. The agitation of the Northists became profound and organized. Most of the clergy and faithful of the vicariate cooperated, which created great embarrassment to the vicar apostolic. Makil himself confirmed that he lost all the authority and control over the Northists and if a decision was not taken in favour of the Northists’, his condition would be very precarious. Zaleski also expressed the same opinion. Representatives of the Northist parishes of Changanassery gathered in Edward’s Memorial Hall under the initiative of Samudayaikya Sangham. They demanded to appoint a Northist vicar apostolic or to place them under Thrissur or Ernakulam. Makil suspended Fr. Karikakulam Geevarghese who gave leadership to the meeting. It caused bitter resentment among the Northists. They reacted publishing leaflets and notices. Their argument was that, if the Southist community could gather at Kaipuzha with the presidency of Msgr. Makil, why could not the Northists gather and discuss about their community. Makil had no answer. Petitions began to flow to the delgation and to different offices of the Holy See. Makil left Changanassery and began to stay at Kottayam which was pictured as a partial victory for the Northists. Makil could not find a solution except for that of a division of the vicariate. He wrote to Zaleski who did not agree with the idea of division as it would perpetuate caste system in the Catholic community. Zaleski suggested to appoint a Northist coadjutor and proposed the name of Fr. Cyriac Vetticappillil.
All the three vicars apostolic met together in Thrissur and discussed the problem. They wrote a joint letter to the PF on March 1, 1911. They proposed three solutions: 1, to divide the vicariate, Kottayam for the Southists and Changanassery for the Northists; 2. to appoint a coadjutor, alternate in the future and 3, division of the administration of the vicariate always with a coadjutor, each bishop ruling the proper community. Makil suggested the name of Fr. Thomas Kurialasseril as the vicar apostolic of Changanassery.
9.2.2. Erection of Kottayam Vicariate
Makil left for ad limina. On April 4, 1911, the Apostolic Delegate informed the PF that when Makil returned from Rome the Northists would not allow him to take possession of the administration of the vicariate. The general assembly of PF on July 31, 1911 took the matter for discussion. In the lists of the vicars apostolic, Fr. Thomas Kurialasseril was the only one whose name was proposed by the three vicars apostolic. He was well appreciated during his studies in Rome. Only Zaleski had a different opinion. The Cardinals proposed to divide the vicariate of Changanassery in two, one for the Northists and the other for the Southists and Makil was transferred to Kottayam. The Pope Pius X confirmed the decision of the Congregation on August 28, 1911. Mar Makil died on January 26, 1914 and Alexander Choolaparampil, his secretary was nominated bishop of Kottayam.
9.2.3. Thomas Kurialassery
He had his studies in Rome. He went to Rome in 1903 with Pazheparampil. He did not take part actively in the agitation in the vicariate but was engaged in planning the foundation of the new religious congregation, SABS. The first official act of Kurialassery was to remove the suspension of Fr. Karikakulam. He admitted some girls in boys high schools which was not appreciated by Zaleski who wrote to Rome about it. The explanation given by Kurialassery was not acceptable to the Congregation and he was asked to discontinue this practice. Zaleski was also against the plan of Kurialassery to start a seminary at Changanassery. Zaleski was for the common seminary at Puthenpally.
9.3. Ernakulam Vicariate
Luois Pazheparampil was appointed the first vicar apostolic of Ernakulam. The third vicariate was first envisaged by Fr. Varghese Valiaveettil of Vazhakkulam. Pazheparampil was consecrated on October 25, 1896. He convened all the priests and trustees. They decided that all churches should contribute 5% of their income. The Thevara school case between Varapuzha archdiocese and Ernakulam vicariate was decided in favour of Ernakulam.
9.3.1. Njarakal Church Case
It was a disciplinary matter. The question was who had power of administration of the temporal goods of the parish: the parishioners or the vicar apostolic through the vicar. The vicar of the church dismissed a non Christian teacher. Some friends of the teacher elected two new directors. The vicar did not accept them. The rebels approached the vicar apostolic. He admonished them. The events followed made the vicar apostolic to excommunicate the president of the Feast. Pazheparampil transferred the parish priest and prohibited the celebration of the feast. The tension continued. A great rebellion at Njarackal broke out in 1912, under the leadership of some of the Mampilly family members. Mampilly Paul Kochuvareed invited the Raja of Kochi and gave him a grand reception by spending about Rs. 1500 from church funds. They built a pillar with pagan symbols in the church yard without permission. When the new trustees were appointed, Mampilly did not accept it. It was at this time that Pazheparampil ordered that all the church documents be registered in the name of the parish priest. Njarackal yogam considered this an encroachment to their rights and they opposed. Pazheparampil ordered the yogam to entrust the keys to the vicar, which the yogam rejected. Mampilly and his two brothers were placed under interdict. Later, in 1916, they submitted the accounts and keys to the vicar apostolic and agreed to abide by the decision of the vicar apostolic. Pazheparampil revoked the interdict without asking to do punishments. With a spiritual retreat to the whole parish community the scandalous affair came to an end. Menachery was a parishioner of Njarackal and Pazheparampil accused him of trying to regain the lost territory of Thrissur, i.e., Angamaly and Parur foranes. It is true that the rebels consulted Menachery and took advice from him. The PF as informed by Pazheparampil asked Menachery explanation. He answered that he could not think of a bishop promoting rebellion against another bishop.
9.3.2. Appointment of Augustine Kandathil as Coadjutor
Pazheparampil desired to have a coadjutor and suggested the name of Fr. Joseph Kalacheril. Zaleski suggested the names of Frs. Cyriac Vetticappillil or Augustine Kandathil and Pazheparampil agreed with the name of Kandathil. Pazheparampil agreed to pay the coadjutor a monthly allowance of 100 rupees and an annual allowance of 300 rupees. He also promised to assign a parish near Ernakulam with a convenient residence. PF on July 31, 1911 decided to nominate Fr. Augustine Kandathil, the coadjutor of Ernakulam. The vicar apostolic and the coadjutor were on good terms and the coadjutor lived with the vicar apostolic and there was no question of money as they lived together. The harmony between them was disrupted in 1916. According to Pazheparampil, the beginning of the discord was the following. Kandathil’s native parish was administered by his uncle. At his death, there was confusion in the parish. Pazheparampil appointed a priest to inquire the case. The report was against the uncle of Mar Kandathil. Pazheparampil published the report without consulting the coadjutor which was a humiliation for the latter. From the letters of Kandathil to Zaleski, we get another version. The conflict began when Kandathil expressed his disagreement and displeasure towards the management of money matters and Pazheparampil got offended. Kandathil demanded the sum of money from the time of his appointment, which Pazheparampil was not prepared to give. Kandathil wrote to PF and demanded the debt from his appointment, monthly installments for preparing a habitation and money of the celebrated mass stipends. The clergy of the vicariate were in two groups and both groups wrote to Rome. Pazheparampil asked Kandathil to transfer his residence to Vechur. He found it a great humiliation. He left the bishop’s house, not to Vechur but to the summer residence at Chengal. Zaleski proposed a solution: Kandathil had to be paid 100 rupees per month as agreed by Pazheparampil when he would leave the bishop’s house. Msgr. Kandathil should be given freedom to choose a parish for his residence and to select an assistant parish priest. According to the solution proposed, Kandathil had no claim on the debt of the former years, since he had willfully chosen to live with Pazheparampil but he could claim the mass stipends celebrated during those years. Kandathil should not stay in a private house but should stay in a parish. He chose for himself the parish of Koratty and Pazheparampil paid the money he owed. Pazheparampil died on December 9, 1919.
9.4. Religious Congregations for Women
CMC in 1865 in Koonammavu
Visitation (of the Blessed Virgin Mary) Convent. Founded on May 4, 1891 in Kaipuzha. On June 24, 1892 the convent was blessed and two sisters received religious habit. The second convent was started in Kidangoor.
FCC by Lavigne in Changanassery on Dec. 14, 1888, 1900 in Pulinkunnu, 1902 in Maniayam- kunnu, 1909 in Pala, 1910 in Thrissur, 1928 in Ernakulam.
On June 1, 1911, Fr. Kadaalikattil started a hopuse at Pala. On June 11, 1920 two sisters were admitted to religious life and on June 24, 1931 Msgr. Kalassery approved them as Sisters Of Sacred Heart.
SABS December 8, 1908 the first 6 members received religious veil.
Holy Family 1914 Mother Mariam Thresia
9.5. Liturgy
The native vicars apostolic did not work enough to reform or to restore the Chaldean Liturgy, in its original form. In many cases they simply followed what the missionaries followed. Of the three Syrian vicars Apostolic, Menachery was more interested to restore at least partially the Chaldean tradition. He was even accused by Zaleski as one who was imbibed with orientalism and accused him of trying to become the Patriarch of Malabarians. Menachery under took the translation of the Roman Pontifical into Syriac, with the consent and concurrence of the other two vicars apostolic. Though the archbishop of Varapuzha asked Menachery to prepare a common catechism for Syrians and for Latins, Menachery was not for that. He thought the Malabar Church should have its own catechism text.
9.6. Chaldean relations
Even after the appointment of native bishops, there were individual attempts from Malabar and Persia to bring once again the Chaldean jurisdiction to Malabar. So Menachery did not encourage any relationship with the Chaldean Patriarch. He got two letters of Joseph Stypho from Mosul, about the possible reunion of Malabar Church with Babylon. Menachery sent the second letter to the delegation and he made it clear that he was not ready to subject the Malabar Church to the jurisdiction of the Chaldean Patriarchate. He proceeded to say that he had some information on some priests from Changanassery headed by Fr. Emmanuel Nidiry. They insisted on introducing into Malabar the Syrian Pontifical heedless of the injunction from Rome. Menachery wrote to Stypho, “We the Syro-Christians are called the Syro-Christians not because we have Chaldean blood in our vains but because we make use of the Syriac idiom in our sacred functions. We are not of the Syrian nation but of the Syrian rite. ”He further stated that a union with the Chaldean Church would be detrimental to the development of the Malabar Church.
On March 19, 1899, a number of priests, lead by the vicars of some important parishes of all the vicariates sent a petition to Rome. (Genuinae relations S. Giamil pp622-629) There was a series of correspondence pursued between Fr. Mani Nidhiry and Samuel Giamil. The petitions requested the Holy See to restore the original identity of their Church including the establishment of juridical relations with the Chaldean Patriarcate. Some petitions demanded that they be called Syro-Chaldean Church and not Syro-Malabar Church. Pazheparampil once wrote to the PF that “perhaps some of the petitions could be undersigned by some people but most of the signatures were to be considered false” (-Remember, some of his petitions were scrutinized in Rome for the same reason) The petitions were forwarded through Samuel Giamil, an East Syrian monk, who represented the Chaldean Patriarch in Rome at that time. PF brought this movement to the attention of the vicars apostolic and all three were against such a move. They unanimously held that if once again the Chaldean rule would be brought to Malabar, that would be the end of the autonomy of the Malabar Church. They were not only against the introduction of the Chaldean Rule but also did not wish to restore all the Chaldean traditions.
9.7. Institution of Syro-Malabar Hierarchy
On June 21, 1901, on the feast of Pazheparampil, his VG and councilors sent a petition to Rome asking to make it a diocese by erecting Syro-Malabar Hierarchy. In 1903, when Zaleski visited Malabar, Pazheparampil submitted a petition of the same idea. Petitions were sent from Ernakulam to Leo XIII in 1903 and to Pius X in 1904. All the three Syro-Malabar prelates together presented a petition through Pazheparampil to Pius X on Feb 11, 1905 and all the Syro-Malabar clergy together in 1907. From 1912 onwards petitions from Ernakulam demanded a Hierarchy with Ernakulam as the Metroplitan See. With regard to the priority for the selection of the headquarters, the petitions from Ernakulam said, there was no precedence to any vicariate, since all the three vicariates were erected simultaneously. So the claim of Thrissur that it had priority could not be accepted. Besides, the church of Ernakulam was established in 1112 while that of Thrissur only in 1814. Angamaly belonged to Ernakulam, Ernakulam was faithful to Rome, in Thrissur there were schismatics, Msgr. Pazheparampil was always obedient to the Holy See, were all the arguments in the petitions.
Pope Pius XI had great interest in missions and he held that Church should be governed by local people. In 1922, Cardinal John Tacci became secretary of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. He saw Syro-Malabar Church mature enough to be granted a proper hierarchy. The Cardinals of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches were unanimous in erecting a Syro-Malabar hierarchy. The Holy Father on December 21, 1923, through Romani Pontifices erected the Syro-Malabar hierarchy with Ernakulam as the archdiocese and Thrissur, Changanassery and Kottyam as suffragan sees.
Latin Church in India
Latin Christianity had its origin in India in 1291 when Franciscan John Monte Corvino baptized more than 100 people in and about Mylapore.Jordan Catalani of Severac and four Friars Minor landed at Thana in 1320 due to bad weather, on their way to Kollam. Catalani proceeded to Broach, Gujarat, where 115 were baptized. On the way he had baptized 35 before Sapora and 90 at Sapora. During his absence his companions were murdered by Muslims. By 1328, the conversion had exceeded 10,000. Catalani founded many houses of his Order and many were brought into the Church. (On August 21, 1329 Pope John XXII appointed catalane the bishop of Kollam.) The jealous Muslims stoned him to death at Thana, probably in 1336. After that the catholic Missions languished in India. Franciscan John Marignoli stayed in Kollam for 16 months on his way to China. The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Kozhikode on May 9, 1498 marks a new epoch of Roman Catholic missions in India. Portuguese missionaries converted thousands on the south coast of Kochi. In 1516, under the influence of Albuquerque, the ruler of Kollam allowed conversion. In 1526, a whole village in Goa was converted to Christianity. Around 1536 a civil war broke out between the Paravas and Muslims in Goa. The Portuguese helped the Paravas and so 20000 of them embrace Christianity. Francis Xavier’s landing in India on May 6, 1542 is a land mark in the history of Roman Catholic missions. He worked among the Paravas from October 1542. The fishermen converted by Francis Xavier are estimated to be 20,000. He landed in Kochi on January 12, 1548. He established a seminary at Kochi and one at Kollam.
By about 1630, in addition to eight parishes in the city of Goa, there were 30 in Ilhas and 28 in Bardez. In Salsette there were 25 parishes and 28379 Catholics. When Bombay fell to the English, Catholics were in Majority. By 1635 the number of Catholics in Damao was around 30,000. Around 1670 the Catholics formed 85% of Goan poulation. At Mylapore and Nagapattanam several parishes were established. In and around Mangalore, several parishes were established. In Chaul and in Diu the Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits laboured. Roberto De Nobili arrived at Madurai in 1606 and his mission spread over to Trichinapoly Dindigal, Tanjore etc. By 1660, a total of 11,198 people were baptized.
Mughal Mission
The History of the North Indian Mission dates back to the reign of Emperor Akbar. Having heard of the scholarship of the Christian priests, Akbar wanted to have some of them at his court. He invited the Jesuits from their college at Goa. The first batch of Jesuits to visit the Mughal mission consisted of Blessed Rudolf Aquaviva, Antony Monserrate and Francis Henriques. They arrived at the Court of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri on February 20 1580. Subsequently two or more missions followed. These missions had full patronage of Akbar and his successors Jehangir and Aurangazeb. Mughal India had no Christian communities as such, but a few individuals enjoyed high reputation and wielded considerable influence both at the court and outside. Agra Mission is an outcome of the Tibet Mission. A decree of the Congregation on January 11, 1704 refers to Tibet Mission. Till 1804 the Capuchin missionaries from Europe came to work there. In 1820, the Tibet-Hindustan mission was formed. When Indian Hierarchy was established in 1886 Agra was made a metropolitan see.
Bihar, Orissa and Madyapradesh
Organized Christian presence and establishment of Christian sacred places & institutions in Bihar is nearly 380 years old. The first Christian establishment in the state was in 1620 by a Jesuit Missionary, Simon Figueredo, under the invitation and patronage of the Mughal Governor of Patna, John Maquirrum Khan, who had been converted a Catholic earlier while serving in Goa. However, the Mission was closed down in 1621, due to opposition from certain sections of the local population. The second organized missionary activity in Bihar began in 1703 when the Tibet-Hindustan mission was established and entrusted to the Capuchins. They came to Patna in 1707. The Tibet mission of the Capuchins paved the way for the founding of the oldest Christian community in Bihar, the Bettiah Christians of Champaran. Hostile circumstances forced the Capuchins to abandon the rather well established Tibet mission and they established a mission at Bettiah, north Bihar, in 1745. A second settlement of Christians took place in 1769 when their Nepal Mission (1715-1769) was also forced to wind up due to changed political leadership. The Nepali converts were allowed to flee to India where they were settled down by missionaries at Chuhari village, 11 km north of Bettiah town.
Bettiah Christians
Having had contacts with the European traders at Patna, the Raja of Bettiah, Dhurup Singh came into contact with a healing priest, capuchin Fr. Hoseph mary Bernini, then at Patna. The Raja invited him to his kingdom, extending patronage to establish a Christian mission at his capital. Fr. Bernini obtained necessary permission from the Pope. The mission founded in 1745 the home of a new Christian group, originally belonged to Hindu high and middle castes from far and near Bettiah. Including the Nawar Christians of Chuhari this group acquired a distinct identity as Bettiah Christians (now 13,000 member Catholic community).
Chota Nagpur
In the 1840s the Lutherans from Germany and in the 1870s other protestant missionaries preached Christianity among the tribals of Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand= South Bihar, North Western Bengal, Northern Orissa and Eastern Madhyapradesh) and converted many tribals. Conversion of tribals to Christianity became a mass movement in mid 1880s when the Belgian Jesuit missionaries particularly Constant Lievens worked among the tribals in Ranchi district. Today the church of Chota Nagpur comprises of some 30 tribes, with some 4 lakh protestants and 12 lakhs Catholics. A new stage in the development of Christianity in Bihar began in the 1930s when several Dalits, particularly, Dusadhs and Chamars responded to Christian evangelization both by the Protestants and the Catholics. The dalit response became a mass movement following Jesuit missionary involvement in rural central Bihar. (Today 50,000 Catholics)
Orissa
Christian presence in Orissa had begun in the early 18th century, when Jesuit missionaries of the Malabar province established there Carnatic Mission, which spread from coastal Andrapradesh to coastal Orissa. It was suppressed in 1773. New Jesuit mission of Bengal, begun in the 1850s penetrated to Balasore and Krishnachandpur in Orissa, but not with much effect. The tribals of Northern Orissa, an area contiguous with Jharkhand, established living Christian communities in early 20th century. The vast majority of the Christians in the state are tribals. Total number is estimated to be some 360,000.
Madhyapradesh
Christian presence began with Jesuit missionary Joseph Tieffentaler(1750s). As in Orissa, it was the tribals of mid India and Eastern Madhyapradesh (contiguous region with Jharkhand) who responded to Christian preaching beginning from early 20th century. The protestant missions established strong Christian communities in the central districts and the Catholic missions, operating from South Western Bihar, established strong Catholic communities in Eastern Madhyapradesh. Among a total of 437500 Catholics in the state, a great majority is tribals. In these three states, though the church membership is only 1%, the church has a highly significant number of public institutions, schools, hospitals, hostels , primary health centers, orphanages, old age homes and so on.
North Eastern Region
Two Tibet-bound Portuguese Jesuit missionaries Stephan Cacella and John Cabral, reached Hajo and Pandu (Guawahati) on September 26, 1626. They visited parts of Goalpara and Kamrup districts on their way to Tibet. The Chronicles of the Augustinian monks at Bandal (Hooghly, West Bengal) provide detailed information about the visit of Francis Laynez, the Jesuit bishop of Mylapore, to Rangamati in the kingdom of Cooch Behar in 1714. A large Christian community of 7000 people lived there. Prior to the Treaty of Yandabu and British annexation of Assam in 1826 we see the visit of Frs. Huc and Gabet, French Lazarists, to Mangaldai on their way to Tibet, and the flourishing Catholic community at Bondashil near Badarpur. This would mean that the North East of India had Christian presence even before the acceptance of Hinduism by the Ahom Raja, Rudra Singha(1693-1714). The whole of North East India (Assam) was under the jurisdiction of the vicar apostoli8c of Calcutta since its establishment in 1834. From 1850 the Foreign Missionaries of Paris (MEP) ministered to the scattered Catholic communities in Assam. Assam acted as a spring-board to Tibet for them. It became part of the prefecture of Central Bengal in 1870 under the care of the Foreign Missionaries of Milan (PIME). In 1890 the Assam Mission was entrusted to the care of the then newly founded German Society of catholic Education known as the Society of the Divine Saviour (SDS) or German Salvatorians. The Jesuit missionaries looked after the Assam mission from 1915-1922. From 1922, the Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB) and later on the diocesan clergy and members of other religious congregations and committed laity contributed to the spread and development of Christianity in the North East.
Bengal
The first Christian settlement to grow up in Bengal was the one, which centered at Bandel Chruch, on the Hooghly river in the 16th century. Its origin and growth could be traced to the power, wealth and influence of the numerous Portuguese traders and mercenaries. The Bandel convent became the headquarters of the Augustinian fathers and residence of the Jesuits. It served as the main base of Christian missionary undertaking in Bengal. It was subsequently extended to Dacca, Chittagong, Jessore and so on in East Bengal. Due to the civil war in Portugal, total neglect of all educational activities by Goan clergy and ignorance of Bengali language of the Augustinians and the clergy, there was a set back for the Catholic mission in Bengal in the 18th century. The Catholic missionary undertaking at Calcutta started in 1700. A chapel was built in Calcutta. The bulk of the Bengali Catholics were descendants of the early Portuguese settlers, and were known as “Luso-Indians”. They were later entrusted to the English province of the Society of Jesus and by the end of 1838 to the diocesan clergy. In 1845, the vicariate of Bengal was divided into vicariate of Calcutta (West Bengal) and vicariate of Chittagong (East Bengal).
Western India
Cosmos Indicopeustes saw a Christian church at Kalyan in AD 545 with a bishop from Persia. Jordan Catalani (early 14th c.) found Christians in Kalyan, Thana, Sopara and Broach (Gujarat). After the arrival of Vasco da Gama Catholic Church developed in Western India with Goa as the centre. Under the Portuguese hegemony after 1540, Goa and Salsette were Christianized by the Jesuits while Franciscan christianized Bardez. The visit of St. Francis Xavier gave new vigour. After 1560, the Christianization of Portuguese territories in Western India gathered momentum. Jesuits, Franciscans and Dominicans led this effort. Most of these Christians adopted Portuguese names and their social and cultural ways. Portuguese era of coercion led to strong Hindu resistance. They adopted measures of reconversion to Hinduism through Shuddhi. The conversions had slowed down by the middle 18th century due to the suppression of Jesuits. The establishment of Propaganda Fide in 1622 also affected the growth of Catholic Church in Western India. In Salsette and Thane, Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians had their own congregations and churches. In 1813, in Bombay Island, there were 11000 Catholics who formed one third of its population. Padroado missionaries were expelled by the English government in 1740. Instead, Propaganda Carmelite priests were allowed to work there. Padroado rights were reestablished in 1791. Bombay continued to suffer because of double jurisdiction of Padroado and Propaganda from 1794 to 1850. The Maratha mission was launched in Ahammednagar in 1778 by Bishop Meurin. Gujarat mission was launched in 1893 by Fr. Michael F. Gomes. In 1928 the double jurisdiction came to an end, which brought unity and progress. In 1813, Protestant missionaries started working in Western India. American Marathi Mission was started in 1812. In the next 20 years, Church of Scotland, Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Church Missionary Society, Mar Thoma Mission, American Presbyterian Mission, Alliance Mission, Salvation Army and other Protestant missions reached there.
Karnataka
Attempts at evangelization were made by the Dominican missionaries already in 1325. Four Christian tombs dating back to 1400 have been located at Anekal. The greater concentration of Christians is along the coastal regions of Mangalore. Italian Jesuit Leonardo Cinnami started the Mysore mission in 1649. The majority of faithful in Karnataka is non Kannada Christians (Goans and Tamilians). In the 19th century, several groups of protestants too came on the scene: London Missionary Society (Bellary, Bangalore, Belgaum) Wesleyan Methodist Mission Society (Bangalore, Mysore, Tumkur) and the Basel Evangelical Mission (Mangalore, Dharwar, Hubli, Honavar and Udipi)
Tamilnadu
Group conversion could be noticed right from the middle of the 16th century. Hundreds of fishermen community (Parayas) of the gulf of Mannar embraced Christianity through the work of St. Francis Xavier (1532-1542). The group conversion was mainly from Dalit who had suffered under the yoke of the caste system for ages.
Malabar rites Controversy :
Malabar rites are not rites in the strict sense. They are certain customs that Jesuit missionaries permitted to their neophytes in Madura Mission until the practice was forbidden by the Holy See. (The region comprising the former kingdoms of Madura, Mysore and Carnatic formed part of the Jesuit province of Malabar.)
Adaptation by Roberto de Nobili: According to the missionary method in use in India in the 16th century, neophytes were expected to dress, eat and behave as their Portuguese colonists and required to take Portuguese surnames. These demands were considered intolerable by most Hindus who called the neophytes Parangies and treated them as outcasts. Roberto de Nobili SJ (early 17th C.) introduced a new method of adaptation that had been successfully applied inChina by the Italian Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. Instead of forcing Indians to become Europeans, the missionaries would try to adjust their own way of life and preaching to existing Indian usages. Nobili took suffron dress, lived and ate as an Indian, and studied the non-dualistic Vedanta (advayda) as a means of gaining entrance to the Brahmin Intelligentsia in Madura. He permitted his disciples Kudumi, Poonool, Santal (mark on the brow= Chandanam) etc. Brahmins of Madura welcomed Nobili’s method and some became Christians. But his Portuguese colleagues were suspicious. Christopher de Sa archbishop of Goa summoned Nobili before the inquisition of Goa at the bidding of Pope Paul V. the archbishop, the Dominicans, the Franciscans and the secular priests voted against Nobili while the inquisitor D’Almeida, Francis Ros SJ and all the Jesuits voted in his favour. Thus from the beginning there were sharply divided views. Nobili had made a distinction between religious rites and civil customs. The quarrel was submitted to Rome and to the grand inquisitor of Portugal in 1621. Gregory XV in 1623 (in his constitution Romanae Sedis) pronounced in favour of Nobili. The method od adaptation had triumphed and the Jesuits adopted. They divided themselves into two groups: Samnyasis to evangelize the higher castes and Pandara swamis for the lower castes. In Madura, Mysore and Trichy good results were obtained. By 1704 Christians in Madura district numbered 90,000.
In 1687 French Jesuits arrived to work alongside the Capuchins in the recently founded French colony of Pondichery. They collaborated with Jesuits in Madura mission and created a special in the Carnatic following Nobili’s method. Soon accusations against Jesuits were being sent to Rome. In 1703 Capuchin Francois Marie de Tours submitted to the Congregation of propaganda Fide 36 questions relating to usages in the Jesuit province of Malabar. Pope Clement XI appointed a legate to examine the rites and customs of South India. On June 23, 1704, he signed a decree condemning in 16 points several usages permitted to the Jesuits. His decree was confirmed by the Holy Office on January 7, 1706 and at the same time a consultor was named to examine the question further. The controversy continued. Finally with the bull Omnium Sollicitudinum of September 12, 1744, Benedict XIV decided the question of the Malabar ritesobliging them to swear a 16 point oath relating to the rites. (Tali, reading Hindu scriptures, Chandanakuri were all forbidden)
Malankara Church
The Puthenkoottukar eventually got into communion with the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch and they adopted jacobite (West Syrian) liturgical tradition. Several attempts were made to rejoin the original apostolic communion. In 1926, the Episcopal synod held at Parumala, empowered Metropolitan Mar Ivanios to enter into negotiations with Rome in order to have a reunion. Pope Pius XI graciously accepted the request and the conditions expressed by the metropolitan that the ancient traditions of the Malankara Church should be retained and kept intact. Accordingly on Sept. 20, 1930, Archbishop Mar Ivanios, Bishop Mar Theophilos, Fr. John Kuzhimepurath OIC, Deacon Alexander and Chacko Kilileth made their profession of faith and were received into Caatholic communion by Bishop Aloysius Maria Benziger of Kollam. On June 11, 1932, the Holy Father erected the Syro-Malankara Catholic Hierarchy.
John Menachery was born on August 1, 1857, at Njarackal. – negative report of Zaleski & positive report of Medlycott. Medlycott thought of an auxiliary bishop. He was consecrated bushop in Kandy by Zaleski on October 25, 1896. Returned to Malabar On December 8, 1896.
There were 64117 Catholics, [5260 Mellusians, 19881 Jacobites] 62 parishes, 13 Chapels, 79 priests and 12 clerics. He tried his best to collect money from individuals and asked the parishes to contribute 5% of their income. He appointed Fr. Varghese Mampilly from Njarakal as his VG.
9.1.1. Our Lady of Lourdes Church
According to the 1890 settlement it was given to the Syrians till they regained the Our lady of Doloures . In 1904 Menachery tried to get it back by a lawsuit. But the supremecourt judged it in favour of Mellusians. Eventually emerged a mutual agreement between Archbishop of Varapuzha and the Vicar Apostolic of Thrissur. By which the archbishop renounced his right over the church and the vicar apostolic paid Rs.1000 as compensation. It was approved by Propaganda Fide, on January 10, 1905.
9.1.2. Dispute over Melarcode church/ Question of Jurisdiction over Syrian Settlers outside Malabar
Melarcode Syrian settlers were outside the territory of the Syrian vicariates. There were 330 Christians. Melarcode was 26 km? from Thrissur and 58 km? from Coimbatore. They built a church and their spiritual care was taken by a Syrian priest from Thrissur, during the time of Medlycott. In 1896, Bishop of Coimbatore, Msgr. Bardov wanted to get the church under his jurisdiction. He took an indirect way. He wrote to the delegate Apostolic, Zaleski, that he could hand over the parish to Menachery. Zaleski objected to it pointing out its consequences. For him it was a question of principle and wrote to Rome “If the Congregation wanted to give the Syrians jurisdiction to those churches which stood outside of their vicariate as similar to that of Padroado, that would have disastrous effects to the Latin missionary works in India.” If Melacode was given, Zaleski forewarned, all the Syrian settlements in India would ask the same. Settlements would increase due to the development of railway and commerce. The Congregation decided as directed by Zaleski. An appeal by Menachery did not have any effect.
9.1.3. Question of a Coadjutor to Menachery
Menachery wrote to the Delegate Apostolic to recommend his desire to have a coadjutor. Menachery suggested Fr. John Ukken to be his coadjutor (1915). The news of the suggestion caused some people to send petitions against Fr. Ukken. Zaleski found that their petitions were organized by certain Fr. Paul Alappatt, who was ambitious. Zaleski said that Menachery preferred Fr. Ukken, who was young and did not have enough administrative and ministerial experience because he knew how to obey. [Later in 1918, Zaleski accused Menachery of changing Fr. Ukken from the Cathedral to a remote parish] Zaleski suggested Fr. Cyriac Vetticappilly. “Before his death, Msgr. Makil was telling in tears, that it was because of his human weakness that he blocked his nomination to episcopate of vicariate of Changanassery. Nobody was nominated as coadjutor, and Menachery died on December 19,1919.
9.1.4. Fr. Antony Puthussery, administrator
According to the testament of Menachery, Fr. Antony Puthussery took charge as the administrator. Delegate Apostolic Biondi was surprised to see the Vicar General was not nominated as the administrator. Besides, puthussery was also young. There were petitions pro and contra. The basic reason behind the accusations was a kind of antagonism among the priests who were educated in seminaries of Kandy, Puthenpally and that of Urban College Rome. Each group wished their own candidate to be the next vicar apostolic. Fr. Puthussery was from Puthenpally. The delegate made an inquiry and Fr. Antony Kavungal was called to Kottayam for collecting information. He stood for Fr. Puthussery. After some time, Mar Alexander Choolaparampil was consulted and he confirmed the presence of hereditary sickness in the family of Fr. Puthussery (white spots especially in the hands.) Some family members were punished because of criminality and delinquency. The Three vicars apostolic were reluctant to his nomination. Thus his name was removed from the list. The three vicars apostolic and the archbishop of Varapuzha Bernard of Jesus, Delegate Apostolic Msgr. Pisani and Zaleski were asked to give a list of candidates. According to Zaleski the only way to remove any agitation or discontent of the factions was to appoint someone outside of the vicariate. In 1921, the Congregation took three from the names they received: Frs. Cyriac Vetticappillil, Francis Vazhappilly and Mathew Thekkekara and made further inquiry. On March 21, 1921, Fr. Francis Vazhappilly was chosen as the new vicar apostolic.
9.2. Changanassery
Makil was appointed as the first vicar apostolic of Changanassery. (Born on April 4, 1851 at Manjoor. Stdied at Puthenpally, ordained on May 30, 1874, taught Syriac in Puthenpally for two yeares, then worked as a parish priest before was appointed the secretary to Marcelline of Varapuzha. Lavigne appointed him VG for the Southists.) His appointment caused great disappointment among the Northists. He tried to introduce a system of Chitty Fund . He continued the work of the propagation of faith in the vicariate which was initiated by Lavigne. There were seven churches in the vicariate for the conversion of Parayas and Pulayas. Makil called a meeting of all the vicars and trustees on December 17,1897 and discussed about raising of a fund for the development of St. John Berchmans H.S.The Northists argued that they would not pay anything until the desire of the community to have a Northist bishop was realized. Makil was so much disappointed.
9.2.1. 1896-1911 a period of agitation
The proximate cause for the agitation is the appointment of Mar Makil, a Southist as the vicar apostolic of the vicariate. Northists in general wished Nidhiry to be the vicar apostolic. The Northists started sending petitions to the Congregation, Delegation and to the Holy Father. On December 10, 1996 Makil arrived in Changanassery. Due to the letter from the prefect of PF which commanded the presence of all the Northist churches for the reception under pain of excommunication, representatives from all parishes reached. A complete representation of the Northists was interpreted by the Congregation as an expression of the strength and unity of the Northists. Petitions were sent to Rome for a Northist Bishop. Zaleski visited Malabar in 1903 and openly appreciated Makil. This caused more dissatisfaction. In some petitions they suggested to divide the vicariate: one with the name Kottayam for the Southists and to appoint a new vicar apostolic for the Northists. Southists formed Knanaya Committee and the Northists formed Samudayaikya Sangham. The agitation of the Northists became profound and organized. Most of the clergy and faithful of the vicariate cooperated, which created great embarrassment to the vicar apostolic. Makil himself confirmed that he lost all the authority and control over the Northists and if a decision was not taken in favour of the Northists’, his condition would be very precarious. Zaleski also expressed the same opinion. Representatives of the Northist parishes of Changanassery gathered in Edward’s Memorial Hall under the initiative of Samudayaikya Sangham. They demanded to appoint a Northist vicar apostolic or to place them under Thrissur or Ernakulam. Makil suspended Fr. Karikakulam Geevarghese who gave leadership to the meeting. It caused bitter resentment among the Northists. They reacted publishing leaflets and notices. Their argument was that, if the Southist community could gather at Kaipuzha with the presidency of Msgr. Makil, why could not the Northists gather and discuss about their community. Makil had no answer. Petitions began to flow to the delgation and to different offices of the Holy See. Makil left Changanassery and began to stay at Kottayam which was pictured as a partial victory for the Northists. Makil could not find a solution except for that of a division of the vicariate. He wrote to Zaleski who did not agree with the idea of division as it would perpetuate caste system in the Catholic community. Zaleski suggested to appoint a Northist coadjutor and proposed the name of Fr. Cyriac Vetticappillil.
All the three vicars apostolic met together in Thrissur and discussed the problem. They wrote a joint letter to the PF on March 1, 1911. They proposed three solutions: 1, to divide the vicariate, Kottayam for the Southists and Changanassery for the Northists; 2. to appoint a coadjutor, alternate in the future and 3, division of the administration of the vicariate always with a coadjutor, each bishop ruling the proper community. Makil suggested the name of Fr. Thomas Kurialasseril as the vicar apostolic of Changanassery.
9.2.2. Erection of Kottayam Vicariate
Makil left for ad limina. On April 4, 1911, the Apostolic Delegate informed the PF that when Makil returned from Rome the Northists would not allow him to take possession of the administration of the vicariate. The general assembly of PF on July 31, 1911 took the matter for discussion. In the lists of the vicars apostolic, Fr. Thomas Kurialasseril was the only one whose name was proposed by the three vicars apostolic. He was well appreciated during his studies in Rome. Only Zaleski had a different opinion. The Cardinals proposed to divide the vicariate of Changanassery in two, one for the Northists and the other for the Southists and Makil was transferred to Kottayam. The Pope Pius X confirmed the decision of the Congregation on August 28, 1911. Mar Makil died on January 26, 1914 and Alexander Choolaparampil, his secretary was nominated bishop of Kottayam.
9.2.3. Thomas Kurialassery
He had his studies in Rome. He went to Rome in 1903 with Pazheparampil. He did not take part actively in the agitation in the vicariate but was engaged in planning the foundation of the new religious congregation, SABS. The first official act of Kurialassery was to remove the suspension of Fr. Karikakulam. He admitted some girls in boys high schools which was not appreciated by Zaleski who wrote to Rome about it. The explanation given by Kurialassery was not acceptable to the Congregation and he was asked to discontinue this practice. Zaleski was also against the plan of Kurialassery to start a seminary at Changanassery. Zaleski was for the common seminary at Puthenpally.
9.3. Ernakulam Vicariate
Luois Pazheparampil was appointed the first vicar apostolic of Ernakulam. The third vicariate was first envisaged by Fr. Varghese Valiaveettil of Vazhakkulam. Pazheparampil was consecrated on October 25, 1896. He convened all the priests and trustees. They decided that all churches should contribute 5% of their income. The Thevara school case between Varapuzha archdiocese and Ernakulam vicariate was decided in favour of Ernakulam.
9.3.1. Njarakal Church Case
It was a disciplinary matter. The question was who had power of administration of the temporal goods of the parish: the parishioners or the vicar apostolic through the vicar. The vicar of the church dismissed a non Christian teacher. Some friends of the teacher elected two new directors. The vicar did not accept them. The rebels approached the vicar apostolic. He admonished them. The events followed made the vicar apostolic to excommunicate the president of the Feast. Pazheparampil transferred the parish priest and prohibited the celebration of the feast. The tension continued. A great rebellion at Njarackal broke out in 1912, under the leadership of some of the Mampilly family members. Mampilly Paul Kochuvareed invited the Raja of Kochi and gave him a grand reception by spending about Rs. 1500 from church funds. They built a pillar with pagan symbols in the church yard without permission. When the new trustees were appointed, Mampilly did not accept it. It was at this time that Pazheparampil ordered that all the church documents be registered in the name of the parish priest. Njarackal yogam considered this an encroachment to their rights and they opposed. Pazheparampil ordered the yogam to entrust the keys to the vicar, which the yogam rejected. Mampilly and his two brothers were placed under interdict. Later, in 1916, they submitted the accounts and keys to the vicar apostolic and agreed to abide by the decision of the vicar apostolic. Pazheparampil revoked the interdict without asking to do punishments. With a spiritual retreat to the whole parish community the scandalous affair came to an end. Menachery was a parishioner of Njarackal and Pazheparampil accused him of trying to regain the lost territory of Thrissur, i.e., Angamaly and Parur foranes. It is true that the rebels consulted Menachery and took advice from him. The PF as informed by Pazheparampil asked Menachery explanation. He answered that he could not think of a bishop promoting rebellion against another bishop.
9.3.2. Appointment of Augustine Kandathil as Coadjutor
Pazheparampil desired to have a coadjutor and suggested the name of Fr. Joseph Kalacheril. Zaleski suggested the names of Frs. Cyriac Vetticappillil or Augustine Kandathil and Pazheparampil agreed with the name of Kandathil. Pazheparampil agreed to pay the coadjutor a monthly allowance of 100 rupees and an annual allowance of 300 rupees. He also promised to assign a parish near Ernakulam with a convenient residence. PF on July 31, 1911 decided to nominate Fr. Augustine Kandathil, the coadjutor of Ernakulam. The vicar apostolic and the coadjutor were on good terms and the coadjutor lived with the vicar apostolic and there was no question of money as they lived together. The harmony between them was disrupted in 1916. According to Pazheparampil, the beginning of the discord was the following. Kandathil’s native parish was administered by his uncle. At his death, there was confusion in the parish. Pazheparampil appointed a priest to inquire the case. The report was against the uncle of Mar Kandathil. Pazheparampil published the report without consulting the coadjutor which was a humiliation for the latter. From the letters of Kandathil to Zaleski, we get another version. The conflict began when Kandathil expressed his disagreement and displeasure towards the management of money matters and Pazheparampil got offended. Kandathil demanded the sum of money from the time of his appointment, which Pazheparampil was not prepared to give. Kandathil wrote to PF and demanded the debt from his appointment, monthly installments for preparing a habitation and money of the celebrated mass stipends. The clergy of the vicariate were in two groups and both groups wrote to Rome. Pazheparampil asked Kandathil to transfer his residence to Vechur. He found it a great humiliation. He left the bishop’s house, not to Vechur but to the summer residence at Chengal. Zaleski proposed a solution: Kandathil had to be paid 100 rupees per month as agreed by Pazheparampil when he would leave the bishop’s house. Msgr. Kandathil should be given freedom to choose a parish for his residence and to select an assistant parish priest. According to the solution proposed, Kandathil had no claim on the debt of the former years, since he had willfully chosen to live with Pazheparampil but he could claim the mass stipends celebrated during those years. Kandathil should not stay in a private house but should stay in a parish. He chose for himself the parish of Koratty and Pazheparampil paid the money he owed. Pazheparampil died on December 9, 1919.
9.4. Religious Congregations for Women
CMC in 1865 in Koonammavu
Visitation (of the Blessed Virgin Mary) Convent. Founded on May 4, 1891 in Kaipuzha. On June 24, 1892 the convent was blessed and two sisters received religious habit. The second convent was started in Kidangoor.
FCC by Lavigne in Changanassery on Dec. 14, 1888, 1900 in Pulinkunnu, 1902 in Maniayam- kunnu, 1909 in Pala, 1910 in Thrissur, 1928 in Ernakulam.
On June 1, 1911, Fr. Kadaalikattil started a hopuse at Pala. On June 11, 1920 two sisters were admitted to religious life and on June 24, 1931 Msgr. Kalassery approved them as Sisters Of Sacred Heart.
SABS December 8, 1908 the first 6 members received religious veil.
Holy Family 1914 Mother Mariam Thresia
9.5. Liturgy
The native vicars apostolic did not work enough to reform or to restore the Chaldean Liturgy, in its original form. In many cases they simply followed what the missionaries followed. Of the three Syrian vicars Apostolic, Menachery was more interested to restore at least partially the Chaldean tradition. He was even accused by Zaleski as one who was imbibed with orientalism and accused him of trying to become the Patriarch of Malabarians. Menachery under took the translation of the Roman Pontifical into Syriac, with the consent and concurrence of the other two vicars apostolic. Though the archbishop of Varapuzha asked Menachery to prepare a common catechism for Syrians and for Latins, Menachery was not for that. He thought the Malabar Church should have its own catechism text.
9.6. Chaldean relations
Even after the appointment of native bishops, there were individual attempts from Malabar and Persia to bring once again the Chaldean jurisdiction to Malabar. So Menachery did not encourage any relationship with the Chaldean Patriarch. He got two letters of Joseph Stypho from Mosul, about the possible reunion of Malabar Church with Babylon. Menachery sent the second letter to the delegation and he made it clear that he was not ready to subject the Malabar Church to the jurisdiction of the Chaldean Patriarchate. He proceeded to say that he had some information on some priests from Changanassery headed by Fr. Emmanuel Nidiry. They insisted on introducing into Malabar the Syrian Pontifical heedless of the injunction from Rome. Menachery wrote to Stypho, “We the Syro-Christians are called the Syro-Christians not because we have Chaldean blood in our vains but because we make use of the Syriac idiom in our sacred functions. We are not of the Syrian nation but of the Syrian rite. ”He further stated that a union with the Chaldean Church would be detrimental to the development of the Malabar Church.
On March 19, 1899, a number of priests, lead by the vicars of some important parishes of all the vicariates sent a petition to Rome. (Genuinae relations S. Giamil pp622-629) There was a series of correspondence pursued between Fr. Mani Nidhiry and Samuel Giamil. The petitions requested the Holy See to restore the original identity of their Church including the establishment of juridical relations with the Chaldean Patriarcate. Some petitions demanded that they be called Syro-Chaldean Church and not Syro-Malabar Church. Pazheparampil once wrote to the PF that “perhaps some of the petitions could be undersigned by some people but most of the signatures were to be considered false” (-Remember, some of his petitions were scrutinized in Rome for the same reason) The petitions were forwarded through Samuel Giamil, an East Syrian monk, who represented the Chaldean Patriarch in Rome at that time. PF brought this movement to the attention of the vicars apostolic and all three were against such a move. They unanimously held that if once again the Chaldean rule would be brought to Malabar, that would be the end of the autonomy of the Malabar Church. They were not only against the introduction of the Chaldean Rule but also did not wish to restore all the Chaldean traditions.
9.7. Institution of Syro-Malabar Hierarchy
On June 21, 1901, on the feast of Pazheparampil, his VG and councilors sent a petition to Rome asking to make it a diocese by erecting Syro-Malabar Hierarchy. In 1903, when Zaleski visited Malabar, Pazheparampil submitted a petition of the same idea. Petitions were sent from Ernakulam to Leo XIII in 1903 and to Pius X in 1904. All the three Syro-Malabar prelates together presented a petition through Pazheparampil to Pius X on Feb 11, 1905 and all the Syro-Malabar clergy together in 1907. From 1912 onwards petitions from Ernakulam demanded a Hierarchy with Ernakulam as the Metroplitan See. With regard to the priority for the selection of the headquarters, the petitions from Ernakulam said, there was no precedence to any vicariate, since all the three vicariates were erected simultaneously. So the claim of Thrissur that it had priority could not be accepted. Besides, the church of Ernakulam was established in 1112 while that of Thrissur only in 1814. Angamaly belonged to Ernakulam, Ernakulam was faithful to Rome, in Thrissur there were schismatics, Msgr. Pazheparampil was always obedient to the Holy See, were all the arguments in the petitions.
Pope Pius XI had great interest in missions and he held that Church should be governed by local people. In 1922, Cardinal John Tacci became secretary of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. He saw Syro-Malabar Church mature enough to be granted a proper hierarchy. The Cardinals of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches were unanimous in erecting a Syro-Malabar hierarchy. The Holy Father on December 21, 1923, through Romani Pontifices erected the Syro-Malabar hierarchy with Ernakulam as the archdiocese and Thrissur, Changanassery and Kottyam as suffragan sees.
Latin Church in India
Latin Christianity had its origin in India in 1291 when Franciscan John Monte Corvino baptized more than 100 people in and about Mylapore.Jordan Catalani of Severac and four Friars Minor landed at Thana in 1320 due to bad weather, on their way to Kollam. Catalani proceeded to Broach, Gujarat, where 115 were baptized. On the way he had baptized 35 before Sapora and 90 at Sapora. During his absence his companions were murdered by Muslims. By 1328, the conversion had exceeded 10,000. Catalani founded many houses of his Order and many were brought into the Church. (On August 21, 1329 Pope John XXII appointed catalane the bishop of Kollam.) The jealous Muslims stoned him to death at Thana, probably in 1336. After that the catholic Missions languished in India. Franciscan John Marignoli stayed in Kollam for 16 months on his way to China. The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Kozhikode on May 9, 1498 marks a new epoch of Roman Catholic missions in India. Portuguese missionaries converted thousands on the south coast of Kochi. In 1516, under the influence of Albuquerque, the ruler of Kollam allowed conversion. In 1526, a whole village in Goa was converted to Christianity. Around 1536 a civil war broke out between the Paravas and Muslims in Goa. The Portuguese helped the Paravas and so 20000 of them embrace Christianity. Francis Xavier’s landing in India on May 6, 1542 is a land mark in the history of Roman Catholic missions. He worked among the Paravas from October 1542. The fishermen converted by Francis Xavier are estimated to be 20,000. He landed in Kochi on January 12, 1548. He established a seminary at Kochi and one at Kollam.
By about 1630, in addition to eight parishes in the city of Goa, there were 30 in Ilhas and 28 in Bardez. In Salsette there were 25 parishes and 28379 Catholics. When Bombay fell to the English, Catholics were in Majority. By 1635 the number of Catholics in Damao was around 30,000. Around 1670 the Catholics formed 85% of Goan poulation. At Mylapore and Nagapattanam several parishes were established. In and around Mangalore, several parishes were established. In Chaul and in Diu the Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits laboured. Roberto De Nobili arrived at Madurai in 1606 and his mission spread over to Trichinapoly Dindigal, Tanjore etc. By 1660, a total of 11,198 people were baptized.
Mughal Mission
The History of the North Indian Mission dates back to the reign of Emperor Akbar. Having heard of the scholarship of the Christian priests, Akbar wanted to have some of them at his court. He invited the Jesuits from their college at Goa. The first batch of Jesuits to visit the Mughal mission consisted of Blessed Rudolf Aquaviva, Antony Monserrate and Francis Henriques. They arrived at the Court of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri on February 20 1580. Subsequently two or more missions followed. These missions had full patronage of Akbar and his successors Jehangir and Aurangazeb. Mughal India had no Christian communities as such, but a few individuals enjoyed high reputation and wielded considerable influence both at the court and outside. Agra Mission is an outcome of the Tibet Mission. A decree of the Congregation on January 11, 1704 refers to Tibet Mission. Till 1804 the Capuchin missionaries from Europe came to work there. In 1820, the Tibet-Hindustan mission was formed. When Indian Hierarchy was established in 1886 Agra was made a metropolitan see.
Bihar, Orissa and Madyapradesh
Organized Christian presence and establishment of Christian sacred places & institutions in Bihar is nearly 380 years old. The first Christian establishment in the state was in 1620 by a Jesuit Missionary, Simon Figueredo, under the invitation and patronage of the Mughal Governor of Patna, John Maquirrum Khan, who had been converted a Catholic earlier while serving in Goa. However, the Mission was closed down in 1621, due to opposition from certain sections of the local population. The second organized missionary activity in Bihar began in 1703 when the Tibet-Hindustan mission was established and entrusted to the Capuchins. They came to Patna in 1707. The Tibet mission of the Capuchins paved the way for the founding of the oldest Christian community in Bihar, the Bettiah Christians of Champaran. Hostile circumstances forced the Capuchins to abandon the rather well established Tibet mission and they established a mission at Bettiah, north Bihar, in 1745. A second settlement of Christians took place in 1769 when their Nepal Mission (1715-1769) was also forced to wind up due to changed political leadership. The Nepali converts were allowed to flee to India where they were settled down by missionaries at Chuhari village, 11 km north of Bettiah town.
Bettiah Christians
Having had contacts with the European traders at Patna, the Raja of Bettiah, Dhurup Singh came into contact with a healing priest, capuchin Fr. Hoseph mary Bernini, then at Patna. The Raja invited him to his kingdom, extending patronage to establish a Christian mission at his capital. Fr. Bernini obtained necessary permission from the Pope. The mission founded in 1745 the home of a new Christian group, originally belonged to Hindu high and middle castes from far and near Bettiah. Including the Nawar Christians of Chuhari this group acquired a distinct identity as Bettiah Christians (now 13,000 member Catholic community).
Chota Nagpur
In the 1840s the Lutherans from Germany and in the 1870s other protestant missionaries preached Christianity among the tribals of Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand= South Bihar, North Western Bengal, Northern Orissa and Eastern Madhyapradesh) and converted many tribals. Conversion of tribals to Christianity became a mass movement in mid 1880s when the Belgian Jesuit missionaries particularly Constant Lievens worked among the tribals in Ranchi district. Today the church of Chota Nagpur comprises of some 30 tribes, with some 4 lakh protestants and 12 lakhs Catholics. A new stage in the development of Christianity in Bihar began in the 1930s when several Dalits, particularly, Dusadhs and Chamars responded to Christian evangelization both by the Protestants and the Catholics. The dalit response became a mass movement following Jesuit missionary involvement in rural central Bihar. (Today 50,000 Catholics)
Orissa
Christian presence in Orissa had begun in the early 18th century, when Jesuit missionaries of the Malabar province established there Carnatic Mission, which spread from coastal Andrapradesh to coastal Orissa. It was suppressed in 1773. New Jesuit mission of Bengal, begun in the 1850s penetrated to Balasore and Krishnachandpur in Orissa, but not with much effect. The tribals of Northern Orissa, an area contiguous with Jharkhand, established living Christian communities in early 20th century. The vast majority of the Christians in the state are tribals. Total number is estimated to be some 360,000.
Madhyapradesh
Christian presence began with Jesuit missionary Joseph Tieffentaler(1750s). As in Orissa, it was the tribals of mid India and Eastern Madhyapradesh (contiguous region with Jharkhand) who responded to Christian preaching beginning from early 20th century. The protestant missions established strong Christian communities in the central districts and the Catholic missions, operating from South Western Bihar, established strong Catholic communities in Eastern Madhyapradesh. Among a total of 437500 Catholics in the state, a great majority is tribals. In these three states, though the church membership is only 1%, the church has a highly significant number of public institutions, schools, hospitals, hostels , primary health centers, orphanages, old age homes and so on.
North Eastern Region
Two Tibet-bound Portuguese Jesuit missionaries Stephan Cacella and John Cabral, reached Hajo and Pandu (Guawahati) on September 26, 1626. They visited parts of Goalpara and Kamrup districts on their way to Tibet. The Chronicles of the Augustinian monks at Bandal (Hooghly, West Bengal) provide detailed information about the visit of Francis Laynez, the Jesuit bishop of Mylapore, to Rangamati in the kingdom of Cooch Behar in 1714. A large Christian community of 7000 people lived there. Prior to the Treaty of Yandabu and British annexation of Assam in 1826 we see the visit of Frs. Huc and Gabet, French Lazarists, to Mangaldai on their way to Tibet, and the flourishing Catholic community at Bondashil near Badarpur. This would mean that the North East of India had Christian presence even before the acceptance of Hinduism by the Ahom Raja, Rudra Singha(1693-1714). The whole of North East India (Assam) was under the jurisdiction of the vicar apostoli8c of Calcutta since its establishment in 1834. From 1850 the Foreign Missionaries of Paris (MEP) ministered to the scattered Catholic communities in Assam. Assam acted as a spring-board to Tibet for them. It became part of the prefecture of Central Bengal in 1870 under the care of the Foreign Missionaries of Milan (PIME). In 1890 the Assam Mission was entrusted to the care of the then newly founded German Society of catholic Education known as the Society of the Divine Saviour (SDS) or German Salvatorians. The Jesuit missionaries looked after the Assam mission from 1915-1922. From 1922, the Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB) and later on the diocesan clergy and members of other religious congregations and committed laity contributed to the spread and development of Christianity in the North East.
Bengal
The first Christian settlement to grow up in Bengal was the one, which centered at Bandel Chruch, on the Hooghly river in the 16th century. Its origin and growth could be traced to the power, wealth and influence of the numerous Portuguese traders and mercenaries. The Bandel convent became the headquarters of the Augustinian fathers and residence of the Jesuits. It served as the main base of Christian missionary undertaking in Bengal. It was subsequently extended to Dacca, Chittagong, Jessore and so on in East Bengal. Due to the civil war in Portugal, total neglect of all educational activities by Goan clergy and ignorance of Bengali language of the Augustinians and the clergy, there was a set back for the Catholic mission in Bengal in the 18th century. The Catholic missionary undertaking at Calcutta started in 1700. A chapel was built in Calcutta. The bulk of the Bengali Catholics were descendants of the early Portuguese settlers, and were known as “Luso-Indians”. They were later entrusted to the English province of the Society of Jesus and by the end of 1838 to the diocesan clergy. In 1845, the vicariate of Bengal was divided into vicariate of Calcutta (West Bengal) and vicariate of Chittagong (East Bengal).
Western India
Cosmos Indicopeustes saw a Christian church at Kalyan in AD 545 with a bishop from Persia. Jordan Catalani (early 14th c.) found Christians in Kalyan, Thana, Sopara and Broach (Gujarat). After the arrival of Vasco da Gama Catholic Church developed in Western India with Goa as the centre. Under the Portuguese hegemony after 1540, Goa and Salsette were Christianized by the Jesuits while Franciscan christianized Bardez. The visit of St. Francis Xavier gave new vigour. After 1560, the Christianization of Portuguese territories in Western India gathered momentum. Jesuits, Franciscans and Dominicans led this effort. Most of these Christians adopted Portuguese names and their social and cultural ways. Portuguese era of coercion led to strong Hindu resistance. They adopted measures of reconversion to Hinduism through Shuddhi. The conversions had slowed down by the middle 18th century due to the suppression of Jesuits. The establishment of Propaganda Fide in 1622 also affected the growth of Catholic Church in Western India. In Salsette and Thane, Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians had their own congregations and churches. In 1813, in Bombay Island, there were 11000 Catholics who formed one third of its population. Padroado missionaries were expelled by the English government in 1740. Instead, Propaganda Carmelite priests were allowed to work there. Padroado rights were reestablished in 1791. Bombay continued to suffer because of double jurisdiction of Padroado and Propaganda from 1794 to 1850. The Maratha mission was launched in Ahammednagar in 1778 by Bishop Meurin. Gujarat mission was launched in 1893 by Fr. Michael F. Gomes. In 1928 the double jurisdiction came to an end, which brought unity and progress. In 1813, Protestant missionaries started working in Western India. American Marathi Mission was started in 1812. In the next 20 years, Church of Scotland, Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Church Missionary Society, Mar Thoma Mission, American Presbyterian Mission, Alliance Mission, Salvation Army and other Protestant missions reached there.
Karnataka
Attempts at evangelization were made by the Dominican missionaries already in 1325. Four Christian tombs dating back to 1400 have been located at Anekal. The greater concentration of Christians is along the coastal regions of Mangalore. Italian Jesuit Leonardo Cinnami started the Mysore mission in 1649. The majority of faithful in Karnataka is non Kannada Christians (Goans and Tamilians). In the 19th century, several groups of protestants too came on the scene: London Missionary Society (Bellary, Bangalore, Belgaum) Wesleyan Methodist Mission Society (Bangalore, Mysore, Tumkur) and the Basel Evangelical Mission (Mangalore, Dharwar, Hubli, Honavar and Udipi)
Tamilnadu
Group conversion could be noticed right from the middle of the 16th century. Hundreds of fishermen community (Parayas) of the gulf of Mannar embraced Christianity through the work of St. Francis Xavier (1532-1542). The group conversion was mainly from Dalit who had suffered under the yoke of the caste system for ages.
Malabar rites Controversy :
Malabar rites are not rites in the strict sense. They are certain customs that Jesuit missionaries permitted to their neophytes in Madura Mission until the practice was forbidden by the Holy See. (The region comprising the former kingdoms of Madura, Mysore and Carnatic formed part of the Jesuit province of Malabar.)
Adaptation by Roberto de Nobili: According to the missionary method in use in India in the 16th century, neophytes were expected to dress, eat and behave as their Portuguese colonists and required to take Portuguese surnames. These demands were considered intolerable by most Hindus who called the neophytes Parangies and treated them as outcasts. Roberto de Nobili SJ (early 17th C.) introduced a new method of adaptation that had been successfully applied inChina by the Italian Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. Instead of forcing Indians to become Europeans, the missionaries would try to adjust their own way of life and preaching to existing Indian usages. Nobili took suffron dress, lived and ate as an Indian, and studied the non-dualistic Vedanta (advayda) as a means of gaining entrance to the Brahmin Intelligentsia in Madura. He permitted his disciples Kudumi, Poonool, Santal (mark on the brow= Chandanam) etc. Brahmins of Madura welcomed Nobili’s method and some became Christians. But his Portuguese colleagues were suspicious. Christopher de Sa archbishop of Goa summoned Nobili before the inquisition of Goa at the bidding of Pope Paul V. the archbishop, the Dominicans, the Franciscans and the secular priests voted against Nobili while the inquisitor D’Almeida, Francis Ros SJ and all the Jesuits voted in his favour. Thus from the beginning there were sharply divided views. Nobili had made a distinction between religious rites and civil customs. The quarrel was submitted to Rome and to the grand inquisitor of Portugal in 1621. Gregory XV in 1623 (in his constitution Romanae Sedis) pronounced in favour of Nobili. The method od adaptation had triumphed and the Jesuits adopted. They divided themselves into two groups: Samnyasis to evangelize the higher castes and Pandara swamis for the lower castes. In Madura, Mysore and Trichy good results were obtained. By 1704 Christians in Madura district numbered 90,000.
In 1687 French Jesuits arrived to work alongside the Capuchins in the recently founded French colony of Pondichery. They collaborated with Jesuits in Madura mission and created a special in the Carnatic following Nobili’s method. Soon accusations against Jesuits were being sent to Rome. In 1703 Capuchin Francois Marie de Tours submitted to the Congregation of propaganda Fide 36 questions relating to usages in the Jesuit province of Malabar. Pope Clement XI appointed a legate to examine the rites and customs of South India. On June 23, 1704, he signed a decree condemning in 16 points several usages permitted to the Jesuits. His decree was confirmed by the Holy Office on January 7, 1706 and at the same time a consultor was named to examine the question further. The controversy continued. Finally with the bull Omnium Sollicitudinum of September 12, 1744, Benedict XIV decided the question of the Malabar ritesobliging them to swear a 16 point oath relating to the rites. (Tali, reading Hindu scriptures, Chandanakuri were all forbidden)
Malankara Church
The Puthenkoottukar eventually got into communion with the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch and they adopted jacobite (West Syrian) liturgical tradition. Several attempts were made to rejoin the original apostolic communion. In 1926, the Episcopal synod held at Parumala, empowered Metropolitan Mar Ivanios to enter into negotiations with Rome in order to have a reunion. Pope Pius XI graciously accepted the request and the conditions expressed by the metropolitan that the ancient traditions of the Malankara Church should be retained and kept intact. Accordingly on Sept. 20, 1930, Archbishop Mar Ivanios, Bishop Mar Theophilos, Fr. John Kuzhimepurath OIC, Deacon Alexander and Chacko Kilileth made their profession of faith and were received into Caatholic communion by Bishop Aloysius Maria Benziger of Kollam. On June 11, 1932, the Holy Father erected the Syro-Malankara Catholic Hierarchy.
ICH - 8. The Suriani Church of India, Her Struggle for Autochthonous Bishops
Suriani Christians were in a unique and anomalous situation in the 19th century. Divided among themselves into fractions, the Suriani Catholics remained unorganized, confused and manipulated. The majority of Suriani Christians, both Catholic and non-Catholic were in the states of Thiruvithamkore and Kochi. The Residents of the English government in Malabar were as a rule on good terms with the apostolic vicars and missionaries. Some of the documents of this time show that the English government in India granted financial help to the missionaries from 1799. (APF, SC 10 3, f.285). For the Suriani Catholics of Malabar, the early years of the 19th century were of disunity, digression, unsteadiness of governance and precariousness in ecclesiastical obedience. In seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Suriani Catholics had to undergo different phases of Padroado and Propaganda jurisdictions, sometimes under the former alone, or under the latter alone and at other times under both. In the last quarter of the eighteenth century the see of Kodungalloor was left vacant. Mar Joseph Cariattil was not fortunate enough to fulfill the long cherished wish of the Christians of Malabar due to his sudden death in Goa. Under the leadership of Gubernador Thomas Paremmakkal (1786-1799), all the Syrian Catholics would come together.
8.1. The Pandari Schism
In November 1796, the Christians of Malabar sent four representatives with the letter of their king Rama Rajah and of their clergy and the people to the Chaldean patriarch of Mosul, Joseph IV. The letter contained their grievances against the Carmelites and their request for a native bishop. Patriarch Joseph IV was dead already in 1791 and Mar John Hormez was the administrator of the Patriarchate. Having received the delegation from Malabar, Mar John wrote to Propaganda Fide on November 25, 1796. In his letter he showed no doubt regarding his right of jurisdiction over the Malabar Christians. In December Hormez wrote again to Rome. Without having obtained any answer from Rome, Mar John Hormez, after 16 months, decided to ordain Paul Pandari, one of the four from the deputation. Thus Mar Paul Pandari was consecrated bishop by Archbishop John. He was not ordained for Malabar but as a titular bishop for the monastery of St. Behnan, near Mosul. Pandari’s written profession of faith was then sent to Rome. After the consecration Pandari returned to Malabar. Mar Hormez’s letter reached Rome on March 17, 1797. On May 10, 1799 the Congregation sent him a reply expressing its regret on the distressing event of which Mar Hormez himself was the only author.
The Congregation stated that Mar John had no authority to consecrate a bishop for a nation which neither belonged to him nor was of his rite. Syrians of India, they concluded, depended immediately upon the Holy See and Mar John was asked to call back Pandari or suspend him from the ministry and from episcopal functions as long as he was not rectified by the Holy See. The Congregation wrote also to Msgr. Aloysius Mary, the apostolic vicar of Malabar that he might bring Pandari back to the obedience of the Holy See. Mar Hormez replied immediately explaining the circumstances in which he consecrated Pandari. On January 20, 1800 he wrote again to the Congregation two letters expressing sorrow rather than astonishment. Mar Hormez justified himself, saying that he thought it opportune to send a bishop to Malabar in the person of Pandari, but not with jurisdiction, just to help them in their despair, other wise they would have become heretics or idolaters. He held the view that the Congregation could not find fault with him because he consecrated Pandari only after waiting for a reply from Rome for one year and four months. He concluded that the Congregation did not want to answer nor to solve the problem. Finally respecting the order given to him, Mar Hormez agreed to call back Pandari
Mar Paul Pandari, titled Mar Abraham, reached Malabar in March 1798 and was, with the two Chaldean priests, welcomed by the people. Msgr. Aloysius Mary went to the ecclesiastical administrator Thomas Paremmakkal and inquired about Pandari. They endeavored to accept Pandari as a simple priest. At this time the Syrian Christians of the Archdiocese of Kodungalloor had no bishop to confer the sacraments of confirmation and ordination either in their diocese or in Kochi. So they turned to their own bishop who just came from Baghdad. The events took another turn when Thomas Paremmakkal died on March 19, 1799. Priests and two representatives from each parish met together [yogam] to decide on the future. They decided to elect one among the twelve priests [The yogam of February 2, 1784 decided that the twelve priests selected from among the Suriani priests should work for the spiritual good of the faithful and should live in those places designed by their ecclesiastical head; if any one of these dies, then the rest should select the twelfth one; the spogli should belong to this group and not to the family members of the deceased ones; …] Ukken Varghese (Kaliparambu), Thekkekara Chakkuriathu (Velianad), Pazhayattil Itticheriathu (Puthenchira), Cheramel Geevarghese (Chalakudi), Urumpathu Abraham (Angamaly), Thachil Abraham (Kuthiathodu), Kachappillil Ouseph (Chennamangalam), Muttanthottil Korathu (Pattamana Paravur),Kattakayam Abraham (Pala), Plathottathil Thoma (Anakkallu), Illikkal Punnus (Chunkam) & Thekkekkara Kunjicheriathu (Changanassery) were those twelve representatives. Accordingly, after the death of the gubernador, the twelve automatically took up the responsibility to elect one vicar general, and that in the person of Kattakayam Abraham Malpan. Documents differ regarding the how of the election. Bernard Thoma (Mar Thoma Christians, 231-232) basing on the local manuscripts wrote: Paul Pandari, with the advice of the 12 priests, elected one among them as the vicar general. The Apostolic vicar of Malabar, Msgr. Aloysius Mary wrote to the Congregation that convinced of the inability and insufficiency of Mar Pandari to govern the churches, those who met at Changanassery forced him to declare as the governor one of their important teachers called Abraham Malpan. At any rate, the rule of the archdiocese came into the hands of the illegitimate vicar general Abraham Malpan. Illegitimate because, the community had no right whatsoever to elect their vicar general.
On April 13, 1799 the representatives of the churches met in a church at Changanasery and recognized Mar Pandari as their bishop. They also presented some of their clerics to be ordained priest by him and he did so. Mar Paul Pandari, although an illegitimate bishop, could exercise the episcopal functions as he was supported by the new vicar general. Only a few Syrian Catholic churches declared formal obedience to the new vicar general and to Mar Paul Pandari, and slowly the number of churches which declared obedience increased, which came up to 29.
8.2. Reunion of Mar Dionysius I
An interesting event that happened at this time was the temporary reunion of Mar Dionysius I and his followers with the Catholic Church. We do not know whether the initiative was from the illegitimate bishop Mar Paul Pandari or from the unauthorized vicar general Kattakkayathil Abraham Malpan or from mar Dionysius himself. With the intention of reunion the representatives of the Jacobites headed by Mar Dionysius and the those of the Catholics, headed by Mar Pandari met in the Holy Cross Church at Alappuzha and signed an agreement on May 20, 1799. They came to the following conclusion:
Now we of both parties unitedly agree on oath to be united as were our forefathers, and to submit ourselves to the Holy Father the Pope, celebrating the mass, reciting the breviary, observing the fasts and other rites as they were prescribed by the Synod of Diamper and to inform the Holy Father the Pope accordingly, with a view to obtaining his permission to conduct all ceremonies according to the Syro-Chaldean rite of those who are in union with the Holy Roman Church. Moreover, we agree that those who accepted and at present retain the Jacobite creed and rites shall abjure them and make the profession of Faith prescribed by Pope Urban VIII for the Orientals and submit to the orders of His Holiness the Pope. …
Mar Dionysius with a few followers according to the prescribed formula which they already had prepared, on June 11, 1799, formally embraced the Catholic faith at St. Michael’s church, Thathampally, before bishop Pandari and declared the acceptance of the Synod of Diamper. Then Mar Pandari in the name of Archbishop Mar John Hormez, absolved Mar Dionysius from ecclesiastical censures. This was followed by a solemn Mass celebrated by the reunited prelate according to the rite prescribed by the Synod of Diamper. All this was concluded with a public document, rendering Mar Dionysius’ faction to pay a sum of 30,000 Rupees to the Thiruvithamkoor government, in case he might go against the decision. It was a general practice of the time in Malabar to pay a sum of money to the government when making public contracts [pecuniary sanction]. There is difference of opinion about the pecuniary sanction: Fr. Placid held, “Among other things, this condition has been the subject of special comment on the intention of Mar Dionysius I. Some say that the sum of money in question was a debt he had contracted with the Thiruvithamkoor government and that Thachil Mathu by his influence made the king condone the debt, declaring Mar Dionysius liable to pay it up only if he abandoned the Catholic Church. Others say that Mathu Thachil, after making Mar Dionysius a debtor, forced him to become a Catholic. Yet others say that the latter sought an opportunity to fish in troubled waters, hoping he could rule over the Catholic Syrians who were not then on good terms with their Latin authorities. (PODIPARA, The Efforts for Reunion, 92, See also KOLLAPARAMPIL, Mar Dionysius the Great, 186-187.) Whatever the case be, this reunion could be considered as the epilogue to all the reunion attempts of Dionysius I with the good intention. He had been working for not less than 35 long years for reunion. [For the reunion attempts of Mar Dionysius see, KOLLAPARAMPIL, Mar Dionysius the Great 151-184]. However this reunion was not a legitimate one since there was no legitimate Church authority behind it. After the formal reunion at Thathampally the pseudo vicar general with another Malpan came to the Apostolic vicar of Malabar Aloysius Mary, to inform him of the happenings and asked him to inform the Holy See. The apostolic vicar did not give ear to their request.
The Archbishop of Goa sent to Malabar Fr. Aloysius of St. Joseph de Remibar, a Franciscan, as gubernador of Kochi. He instructed the Syrians not to communicate with the schismatics adhering to the intruder bishop Pandari and the illegitimate vicar general Kattakayam. Rebimar, through the apostolic vicar of Malabar collected a list of priests from the Syrian Catholics. The list presented by the Syrians met at Holy Cross Church at Alappuzha, had the following names: Sankoorikal Geevarghese, Thottakattu Chacko Kuriathu, Thachil Abraham & Plathottathil Thomas. Sankoorikal Geevarghese [He had his studies in Propaganda] was appointed as the administrator of Kodungalloor. The appointment of a new vicar general left the pseudo vicar general no chance to remain in his office. This effected in Mar Pandari’s loosing his influence among the people. Mathu Tharakan fell into disgrace with the Thiruvithamkoor government. Thus one after another the supporters of Mar Dionysius lost their influential stands. Mar Dionysius could then understand that what he had accomplished at Thathampally had no meaning at all. He could not find any Latin authorities well-disposed to promote his cause. Keenly aware of his uncertain status and futile position, in December 1799 he reverted to Jacobite faith, after six months of Catholic life. He had to pay the government the accorded stipulation and before being reinstated in the former office, as a penance he had to celebrate 40 Masses at his own expense. Mar Dionysius eventually turned to the Church Missionary Society.
8.3. The Church Missionary Society
In 1806, an English clergyman Rev. Claudius Buchanan, who was chaplain of the English East India Company, visited Malabar. At the request of the British Resident, the Church Missionary Society sent Rev. Thomas Norton to Malabar in 1816. Benjamin Baily (1816), Joseph Fenn (1818) and Henry Baker (1819) were the first missionaries who worked among the Syrians. The relations between the Syrian Church and the missionaries began to fade due to many reasons. In spite of the material prosperity and cultural progress, the union of Jacobites with the Anglicans affected their faith badly even causing many splits in the community. With the Mavelikara Synod of 1836, the Jacobites dissolved all connections with the Church Mission. The Carmelite missionaries were on guard against the spread of Protestantism among the Suriani Catholics.
8.4. The Period after Schism
The new vicar General, Sankoorickal could get the support of the English resident at Kochi. As the English resident wrote to both the kings of Thiruvithamkoor and Kochi, the king of Kochi wrote to the new vicar general to stay in the church near to his palace, and to the Christians to take the new vicar general as their superior if they would like. During the Pandari schism the churches of the Suriani Christians were divided in three jurisdictions: Padroado, Propaganda and Chaldean. By this time the order from Propaganda Fide regarding Mar Pandari reached Malabar. The faithful were informed of the suspension of Mar Pandari. He then went to the vicar apostolic of Malabar and expressed his readiness to stay in the seminary for the Syrians. He then left to the mountains and later he was seen going from place to place to find a settlement. On July 5, 1800, the Thiruvithamkoor government announced the Royal declarations allowing the Syrian Catholics of Malabar to choose either Kodungalloor of Padroado or vicariate apostolic of Malabar under Propaganda. The Angamaly church with some other churches declared their allegiance to the apostolic vicar. That lead to the reestablishment of the system that prevailed before 1786, i.e., before the appointment of Mar Cariattil as archbishop of Kodungalloor for all the Syrians. This revived the inter-jurisdictional and intra-jurisdictional problems in Kodungallore and in Malabar vicariate. Although it was the right of the Syrian Catholics to be under their head in the see of Kodungalloor according to the age old tradition, Propaganda represented by the apostolic vicar Aloysius Mary wanted to take to his jurisdiction as many churches as possible. This lead to conflict between the vicar apostolic and the vicar general.
The general assembly of Propaganda Fide on March 30 and later on September 23, 1801 discussed the matter of Malabar. After discussions, the cardinals decided:1) To give faculty to Bishop Pandari to be absolved from the irregularity and to confirm approval, a cautela if he had incurred a suspension because of his acts; 2) To give faculty to Mar John to be absolved, a cautela, from the irregularity if incurred in his acts in the case of the jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldeans of Malabar; 3) To give faculty to Mar John to depute Mar Iso’yahb Guriel, the bishop of Salsmat, as his vicar in Malabar with full jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldean Catholics; and also in those dioceses of the Latin rite where the Latin prelates cannot exercise jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldeans and 4) To depute the apostolic vicar of Bombay as visitor in Malabar with all the faculties. The report of the General Assembly of April 13, 1807, states that the ‘provisions’ taken in the General Assembly of September 23, 1801 over the Syro-Chaldeans of Malabar have not been executed. The documents speak little about the last days of Pandari. In March 1807, the Bombay apostolic vicar wrote about his departure from Bombay to Bassora and then to Mosul to his consecration.
8.5. Propaganda vs. Padroado
By January 1802, 37 Syrian churches came under the subjection of the apostolic vicar of which 10 were from the former schismatic faction. Though in 1803, Msgr. Raymond of St. Joseph OCD an Italian Carmelite was nominated as the successor of Aloysius Mary as vicar apostolic, he was consecrated only on January 3, 1808. During the time of Aloysius Mary, there were four missionaries, but when Msgr. Raymond took charge there was only one, Fr. Prosper, who was very new to the mission of Varapuzha. The years of Msgr. Raymond witnessed pitiable and rather scandalous events. It was decided to remove him for his inappropriate behaviour i.e.,
Immoderate use of wine, alienation from the religious practices and devotions, irreverence in performing the sacred functions of his pastoral office, the lewd way of behaviour in public with the youth and women, either Christians or gentiles…
Msgr. Raymond died on July 7, 1816, before the letter of his dismissal and the brief of appointment of Francis Xavier reached Malabar. From 1804 to 1817, the vast mission of Malabar was governed by only two missionaries. One among them was Fr. Prosper who was accused of immoral character and even apostasy and was forced to leave the house of Varapuzha. Fr. Francis Xavier declined to take up the responsibility as the apostolic vicar of Malabar and the apostolic vicar of Mogul, Bombay, Msgr. Peter Alcantara was in charge of the vicariate. In July 1818, Congregation decided to appoint Fr. Prendergast as the vicar apostolic of Malabar. Fr. Prendergast had so many qualifications in studies and knowledge in several languages and had virtues that would help him in the missionary work in Malabar. Rome’s satisfaction in the person of Prendergast and in his election as apostolic vicar of Malabar did not last long. He found himself out of place in Malabar. His fellow missionaries accused him of behaving in a manner unworthy of a bishop and inhuman and unjust towards others. In addition, he was found guilty of immorality. Propaganda, with the approval of the Pope appointed Msgr. Maurilius Stabililni, coadjutor of the apostolic vicar of Mogul to inquire about the accusations against Msgr. Prendergast. On receiving Msgr. Stabilini’s report from Malabar, the Congregation decreed on May 5, 1827 that Msgr. Prendergast be removed from the office. Msgr. Stabililni was made the interim apostolic vicar of Malabar. He too could not rise up to the expectations. The fishermen problem, the jurisdictional problem between the dioceses of Kodungalloor and Kochi and the apostolic vicariate of Malabar as well as the problems between himself and his vicar general, the sole missionary in Varapuzha and so on made him to wish to return to Europe. Propaganda decided to withdraw Stabilini in 1831 and to appoint Francis Xavier. Stabilini left Malabar in January 1833. When Francis Xavier reached Malabar there was only one missionary, Fr. Nicholas. (In buying and selling of Mass wine he used to make great profit. Conforming to the order of the Congregation he left for Bombay in 1834. In the same year two missionaries reached Malabar vicariate, and in 1836 two more reached there. Francis Xavier died in December 1844.
8.5.1. Padroado
(On August 4, 1600, the right of patronage over the archdiocese of Angamaly was granted to the Portuguese by Pope Clement VIII through the bull In Supremo.) The division among the Mar Thoma Christians due to the Latinization policy of the Portuguese and the double or triple jurisdiction over the same community are the consequent pitiable results of the Padroado in Malabar. The line of succession of Jesuit prelates continued till the appointment of the autochthonous archbishop Mar Cariattil in the See of Kodungalloor. After him no prelate either Portuguese or native ruled Kodungalloor. In the initial years of the 19th century Fr. Sankoorikal was the administrator of Kodungalloor followed by a series of Portuguese priests who were appointed governadors. A letter from the parish of Thalassery to Propaganda in 1836 says that “For the whole period of 60 years the above see [Kodungalloor] has been filled by certain regular priests appointed by the government of Portugal under the title of governors and who receive their jurisdiction from the metropolitan of Goa.” All these appointments were nominal and provisional, with the result that the Padroado rule in Malabar at this period was just a device to hold their name and fame. [Fr. Paul of St. Thomas Aquinas was administrator of Kodungalloor. He was consecrated on March 4, 1821 at Goa, took charge of the archdiocese of Kodungalloor in January 1823 and died on December 19, 1823.]
The jurisdictional controversies became acute in the nineteenth century when Padroado could not provide bishops to the sees under their jurisdiction. The apostolic vicars who were against the inadequate and anachronistic existence of the Padroado in India demanded to get extended their jurisdiction over all the faithful. The jurisdictional controversies sometimes reached the point of calling the other section enemy. The jurisdictional controversies between Padroado and Propaganda took a new turn in 1838 with the brief Multa praeclare. According to the 1786 report of Aloysius Mary, there were 46 Syrian parishes and 14 chapels and 17 Latin parishes and 11 chapels in the vicariate apostolic of Malabar while there were 41 Syrian parishes and 44 Syrian Jacobite parishes, six of them were common to the Syrians and Latins; three were dependent upon the apostolic vicar and three upon the archbishop of Kodungalloor. There were 117 Syrian priests and 47 Latin priests and 70,500 Syrians and 30,100 Latins.
8.5.2. Towards the suppression of Padroado
The deplorable situation of the Church of India under Padroado jurisdiction in the first decades of the 19th century necessitated the intervention of Rome to provide for the needs of the faithful in those dioceses. Card. Pedicini, the prefect of Propaganda Fide wrote to the ambassador of Portugal to Holy See regarding the necessity of approaching the king of Portugal, requesting him to see to the need of the spiritual care of the Catholics in the missions in India. The archdiocese of Kodungalloor from 1750 till 1838 had one archbishop only in the first 26 years; from 1777 to 1838 there was only one archbishop for a period of eleven years. Kochi from 1800 onwards had no bishop. Mylapore from 1759 till 1838, a period of 32 years had one bishop; from 1800 onwards the see was vacant. From the beginning of the nineteenth century the vacant sees of Kodungalloor, Kochi, and Mylapore were put under the immediate jurisdiction of the archbishop of Goa. Against the right of patronage the Portuguese could not fulfill their obligations for the provision and maintenance of their dioceses in India. Lack of seminaries for the formation of clergy was an important problem. The revolution of 1834 in Portugal lead to the suppression of Religious Orders (1834-35) and the rupture of diplomatic relations with Holy See. The English political supremacy in India reduced the Portuguese power to very limited areas. On the basis of the new political situation in India and the desolate situation of the Church under Padroado, the general assembly of Propaganda held on July 9, 1833, discussed what was to be done for the spiritual welfare of the Catholics in those regions where the English had already established their political supremacy. The Cardinals decided to induce the English government to take necessary steps favorable to Catholics in India and it had positive results. Sensing the need to repair the difficulties in the Church in India, the Holy Father, Pope Gregory XVI decided to take new steps to give the Church liberty from the state, even though it was detrimental to the demands of the Padroado. The earlier decision of Rome to provide missionaries in those places where there was no Church presence at all was not met with opposition from the Portuguese Padroado in India. Since the Portuguese were unable to provide missionaries for many areas claimed to be under their control, the Holy See had no choice but to appoint apostolic vicars for those areas where there was no Church presence all. Calcutta or Bengal was erected an apostolic vicariate under Propaganda on April 18, 1834. Taking into consideration the protest of the Portuguese clergy in Calcutta, the Holy Father on December 27, 1834 ordered them to hand over the churches to the apostolic vicar. But they protested vigorously. The Portuguese held that the Pope should have got permission from the Portuguese and English governments before the erection of the new vicariate. “There is no need to recognize any authority in the head of the Portuguese nation to regulate anything temporal or spiritual with in the limits of the British territory” was the English position. [Letter of the governor of Calcutta APF acta 199. F. 238r. 1835]. On August 4, 1835 the Pope repealed the brief of 1606 of Pope Paul V [Hodie Sanctissimus erecting the diocese of Mylapore] . (New vcariates were erected: Madras, Bengal, Pondichery, Madura, Ceylon). Msgr. Francis Xavier the apostolic vicar of Malabar informed Propaganda that the administrator of Manoel de S. Joakim Neves, a Portuguese Dominican was causing great trouble in Malabar in the Diocese of Kochi. Pope Gregory XVI himself was in background of the steps taken in favour of the appointment of apostolic vicars in the Padroado sees. In conformity with the ideas of the Pope, a draft of the brief Multa Praeclare was prepared. After discussions in two general assemblies [Sept.19, 1836 and December 18, 1837], the Brief Multa praeclare was published on April 24, 1838. The consequences of the Brief were many and varied both in India and in Portugal. The opposition from the part of the Padroado clergy was very strong. The great opponents of the Brief were the Goan group under the leadership of Fr. Antonio Carvalho, the archbishop elect of Goa and Fr. Antonio Teixeira, the bishop elect of Madras. [Their argument was Jus Patronatus was not privilegio grazioso but privilegio acquisto that cannot be denied even by the same pontiff].
8.5.3. ‘Goan Schism’
Seeing the efforts of the Padroado clergy to hold to the right of patronage, preaching even against the authority of the pope, Msgr. Francis Xavier on April 19, 1838, wrote a circular letter prohibiting his subjects to have communion with those who maintain the schism. Soon after the brief reached Malabar on September 4, 1838, Msgr. Francis Xavier promulgated it in whole Malabar but with little effect in the ex-diocese of Kochi. Although Francis Xavier sent a copy of the brief together with an exhortative letter ex-governor Neves, the schismatics accused that the brief and the circular letters were composed by the apostolic vicars in India and were false. Neves could find 12 Syrian priests of the archdiocese of Kodungalloor to stand against the decision of the Pope, but he had the support of not a single Syrian parish. In October 1838, only two churches of Kochi followed the apostolic vicar. By Feb. 1839, 20 churches of Kochi followed him but still 50 remained with Neves. Before the promulgation of the brief, the administrator of Kodungalloor, Fr. Peixoto died and before his death he expressed his wish that the Syrians in his archdiocese would go to the jurisdiction of the apostolic vicar of Malabar. On April 10, 1840, Francis Xavier was made archbishop. A letter of Francis Xavier to the Congregation on September 14, 1840shows that in central Malabar only two churches and two oratories were in schism and all others were under the archbishop. The temporal suppression of Padroado jurisdiction and the consequent end of the conflicts between the two jurisdictions did not satisfy the Suriani Catholics. [The resistance has been called the Goan or Indo-Portuguese schism by many authors. The term schism appears frequently in Papal pronouncements, however do not call the Goans schismatic (except four priests in Bombay) but only openly disobedient. According to the 1886 concordat, the ecclesiastical province of Goa under Padroado was to comprise of three more dioceses: Kochi, Mylapore and Daman, with the further title of Kodungallore. After India Independence in 1947 a new concordat limited the Padroado to Portuguese territory, i.e., Goa. In 1961 when India occupied Goa, Padroado terminated in India.
8.6. Rocos Schism
In 1833, there were 41 parishes, 106 priests 25 deacons 30,607 faithful and 11 filial churches under the jurisdiction of the vicar apostolic of Malabar (Varapuzha). After the suppression of Padroado most of the Syrian parishes came under Varapuzha. In 1855? Archbishop Bernardine Bacinelli OCD of Varapuzha gave orders to stop the malpanate system of priestly formation, which was the practice among the Suriani Catholics. He declared that only those candidates who had studied at Puthenpally seminary under Carmelite missionaries or at Mannanam, Elthuruth or Vazhakulam under native Suriani Carmelites would be ordained. The Suriani Catholics placed under Padroado did not have a bishop in Malabar to ordain their candidates. That might have been the main reason why they approached the Chaldean Patriarch who sent to Malabar Mar Rocos. Under the influence of Dhanah Barjona, who reached India in 1853, was staying at the Kuravilangadu church, some St. Thomas Christian leaders- especially from the Portuguese Padroado- came together in 1854 at Kuravilangadu and resolved to send representation to the Chaldean Church. Two priests, Antony Kudakachira and Antony Thondanatt were to lead the delegation. They started for Baghdad in 1857. Kudakachira died there and Thondanatt took up the leadership. In 1861 Thondanatt came back to Kochi with Mar Rocos who was sent by the Chaldean Patriarch., Mar Audo. Already in 1860, Pope Pius IX had asked the Patriarch not to interfere in Malabar affairs. The great majority of the Suriani Catholics followed Mar Rocos since he claimed to have been sent by the Patriarch at the order of the Pope. He visited many parishes: Vadayar, Kaduthuruthy (both Little and Great), Kumarakam, Muttuchira, Kuravilangadu and Athirampuzha and ordained more than a hundred. At the order of the Pope, Patriarch Audo had to recall Mar Rocos on September 7, 1861, but eighty-six full parishes and thirty-one partial parishes had already joined the Rocos schism. Thondanatt accompanied Mar Rocos, received episcopal consecration from the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Shim’un, and returned to Malabar as Mar Abdiso. After the return of Mar Rocos most of the churches were reintegrated into Varapuzha. Those churches which did not joint Varapuzha (most of them north to Varapuzha and two churches in the south) were in a vicious circle: they did not want to go back to Varapuzha, but the option for Padroado was not available. They followed Antony John Santimano who lived in Kollam as gubernador of the Goan schismatics. In 1863, after the return of Mar Rocos, Archbishop Salvator Saba reached Malabar coast as apostolic commissary with a lay representative of the Portuguese king. The purpose of their commission which began in 1861 was to put into effect the concordat of 1857 between the Holy See and Portugal. Among the terms of the concordat, it was endorsed that those churches and Christians under Propaganda and those under Padroado on the day of the signing of the concordat, were to maintain their status quo. On April 21, 1863, Saba ordered the churches in Malabar to decide within eight days either for Varapuzha, or for Portuguese Padroado. Under Varapuzha there were104 churches, 37 under Padroado; while 16 churches had two communities, one under Varapuzha and the other under Kodungalloor of Padroado.
When the see of Kodungalloor was reestablished, as a result of the 1857 concordat between Holy See and Portugal, some followers of Rocos joined the Padroado; but there was no bishop in Malabar under Padroado. This remained a great problem, especially with regard to the ordination of seminarians. According to an order given by the papal commissary, Archbishop Saba, that “… all those who were ordained by Mar Rocos should remain in those minor orders until the reception of an order from the Vatican; there were among Suriani Catholics, seven priests and more than a hundred clerics who received other minor orders from Rocos. They waited for an arrangement from Rome, but after many years and repeated petitions, they received no positive sign from Rome. Some of them again sent petitions to Patriarch Audo asking for a bishop. The Patriarch still claimed powers of jurisdiction over the Church of Malabar. The Patriarch came forward with his arguments in the First Vatican Council in 1869, but no clear cut decision was taken, since the Council came to an early end. The apostolic vicar of Varapuzha, Msgr. Leonardo Mellano OCD, who was in Rome for Vatican I, asked permission to receive the Suriani Christians from Under Padroado. Propaganda advised him to receive the at their request without endangering the 1857 concordat. According to this permission, 18 churches which followed Padroado fully and 8 churches partially, were accepted into the Varapuzha jurisdiction; 4 churches which followed Padroado fully, split into two communities, of which one accepted Varapuzha jurisdiction, whereas 15 churches fully and twelve partially remained under Padroado. Fr. Kuriakose Chavara TOCD who took lead in fighting against the Rocos schism was made vicar general of Varapuzha, but when Propaganda inquired about him to make him a bishop for the Syrians, the apostolic vicar presented him to be too old to nominate bishop. Thus the Suriani Christians had practically no hope to have a native bishop.
According to the report of Msgr. Bonnand, (the Visitor of all the Vicariates of East India), prepared in 1861, there were 233,000 Christians in the vicariate of Varapuzha, with 263 parishes, seven missionaries, 418 native priests and 40 thousand Christians under Padroado jurisdiction. Varapuzha was entirely different from other vicariates of the Indian subcontinent in the number of Catholics, churches and native priests. The mission with the second highest number of native priests was Mangalore with 18 priests. Besides the numerical difference, the visitor categorized he churches in India into three: churches of the Suriani Christians had all that was needed and the income was administered carefully; in the churches of Portuguese origin the temporalities of the missions were firmly stabilized and where there was insufficient annual income to manage, they used to impose contributions and tithes; the other Christian communities, for the maintenance of missionaries had to depend mainly on the resources provided by Propaganda or on government subsidy for the military chaplains.
8.7. Mellus Schism
Under the initiative of a Chaldean monk, Philip Aziz, who came to Malabar for a second time to collect money, the Chaldean Patriarch yet again sent a bishop, Mar Elia Mellus, to Malabar who reached Bombay in August 1874. In spite of the efforts of Msgr. Leo Meurin, the then apostolic vicar of Bombay, he reached Thrissur on October 21, 1874. As Mar Mellus reached Malabar, Mar Abdiso [Antony Thondanatt], the parish priest of Edamattam who had been reconciled with the Catholic Church, relapsed and joined him. The parishes of Suriani Catholics which followed Mar Mellus were mainly in the North of Varapuzha and in such places as Kuravilangadu, which were under Padroado. Mar Mellus also ordained many in Malabar, and, at his request, another bishop, a certain Mar Philip Jacob Uraha reached Malabar from Persia. The Mellusian schism was a stronger movement than that of Rocos, increasing confusion and division among the Suriani Catholics of India. From various signals from Malabar, Propaganda sensed that the situation was growing out of Mellano’s control. The arrival of Mar Philip Jacob and the association of Mar Abdiso with Mellus were alarming. There were also Carmelite missionaries like Fr. Leopold of St. Joseph OCD, who wanted a separation of Suriani Catholics from Latins. It was he who took the lead to write petitions to Propaganda at the end of 1873. Some disciples of Fr. Leopold from Mannanam TOCD house, started writing petitions against the apostolic vicar Mellano who expelled seven of them from their religious houses. (Paul Sankoorickal, Mathew Matheikal, Emmanuel Meenattoor, Joseph Chiavara, Varghese Irumpan, Hilarios Tharavattathil & Aloysius Pazheparambil are known as seven ‘dolores’). In this background, in spite of Mellano’s objection, The Roman Congregation Propaganda Fide decided to send Msgr. Leo Meurin s.j., Apostolic vicar of Bombay, as apostolic visitor of Malabar.
8.8. Msgr. Leo Meurin s.j., Apostolic Visitor of Malabar.
Meurin already had presented the Malabar situation before the Congregation. Meurin’s frequent reports confirmed the urgency of nominating a separate bishop for them and this attitude of Meurin increased the Suriani Catholic’s desire for a separate bishop if not autochthonous. Mellano considered Meurin’s policy unbearable, the Carmelites considered Meurin a partisan of the Suriani Catholics and the missionaries and their devotees wrote to the Holy See against him. The dissension between Meurin, the apostolic visitor, and Mellano, the apostolic vicar, prompted Propaganda to discuss the issue in a general assembly in 1876 and wrote to Meurin that ‘he went beyond the Holy See’s instruction and, because of his strategy, instead of pacifying the Malabarians their unrest increased. As long as Meurin remained in Malabar, he was asked, he should proceed strictly according to Propaganda’s instructions trying proficiently and with prudence to taper off the hope given to the Suriani Christians’. On the other hand Mellano was advised to observe the utmost temperance and tenderness towards the Suriani faithful, priests and the Suriani Carmelites. Propaganda’s new directives did not change Meurin’s conviction that the only remedy for the predicaments in Malabar was to nominate a separate bishop for the Syrians. On September 26, 1876 the Holy Father approved the decision of the Propaganda to send a second visitor to Malabar.
8.9. Msgr. Ignatius Persico Apostolic Visitor of Malabar
Msgr. Ignatius Persico reached Malabar as visitor on February 23, 1877. He studied the situation to prepare an objective report without interfering overly in the affairs. According to Persico, the earnest desire of the Malabarians to have a bishop of their own proper rite was age old and exhibited many times. The longing became intense due to the abandoned state in which they found themselves estranged from the missionaries, who for the lack of or little knowledge of the language, not only disregarded the Suriani Catholics but treated them with haughtiness and rudeness. Persico reported that, there were schools and charitable institutions established for the Latins, while for the Syrians little or nothing was being done, but they were left in ignorance and almost abandoned to themselves. The visitor insisted that the missionaries should learn Malayalam. Finally the visitor affirmed that the Carmelite missionaries, though good religious, their administration was rough and almost brutal. (Even Fr. Leopold who was pictured as a pro-Suriani, in his letters to the Cardinal prefect requesting a separate vicariate for the Syrians, envisaged a vicariate with a Carmelite as the apostolic vicar.) Even the missionaries themselves expressed discontent and frustration about their mission, and knew for certain that they were not doing justice to their work especially because of the lack of personnel and of money. The psychological state of the Carmelite missionaries could be read in the letter of Fr. Emidio OCD from Varapuzha: “Now I am staying here with Msgr. Leonard, who is in good health, as are also the other missionaries. However, all are almost like sheep assaulted by a wolf, frightened and alert, assaulted not by a wolf but by a Lion [Leo Meurin, Leo = Lion] whom I might call apostolic visitor, better apostolic perturber.”
8.10. Separation of Syrians from Latins
On July 9, 1877, the General Assembly of Propaganda decided to end the visit of Leo Meurin, to defer the division of the vicariate of Varapuzha and to appoint Fr. Marcelline Berardi OCD as coadjutor to the Leonardo Mellano with exclusive charge of the Syrians. Meurin left Malabar in September 1877 accompanied by the reunited Chaldean bishop Mar Jacob Urahah. The appointment of the coadjutor, though somewhat bitterly received, was joyfully accepted by the Carmelites, as they were afraid of being deprived of the mission. But, Mellano did not want to communicate the instruction from the Holy See that Marcelline should act for the Syrians independent of the apostolic vicar, and in consultation with a vicar general and four counselors. Marcelline himself did not want to act according to the directives, to have a vicar general and the counselors. More than once he wrote to Rome explaining the difficulties in appointing them. Moreover, he could not justify the necessity having four counselors since there were no cases in which he had to get counsel. Since Marcalline was too dependent on the apostolic vicar Mellano, the Syrians could not accept him as their own bishop. As a result, they continued writing petitions to Rome. Some of the main points of the petitions were: That great confusion existed in the Suriani churches because of the presence of Mellus who resided in Thrissur; that lax Carmelite bishops did nothing against the daily growing schism and that as a result the pagans, Protestants and Jacobites laugh at the Catholics who were being despised; that in order to suppress their development the Carmelites did not educate the Malabarians; that the Suriani Catholics claimed the right to have what other nations already had, a bishop of their own rite. Those who supplicated the Holy Father for a bishop of their own rite were considered rebels and so on. Rome appointed an expert to scrutinize the petitions from Malabar.Two of Louis Pazheparambil’s letters were scrutinized and the expert pointed out that the names undersigned seemed to be fraudulent in order to increase the number of priests. After repeated insistence from Rome Marcelline appointed a vicar general and four councilors, all known Carmelite supporters. Marcelline was not satisfied either. He wrote to Rome different times expressing his desire to resign.
8.10.1. Carmelite Missionaries and English Education
The missionaries seem to have been afraid of giving the people English education. They thought that pious Christians would be led astray by the absorption of modern thought or Protestant ideas through the medium of the English language. They were afraid of even publishing an encyclical of Pope Leo XIII [Inscrutabili dated April 21, 1878, describing the evils in the society to which the Church offered remedy in the spiritual and cultural levels], so as not to give the people a bad impression of religious conditions in Europe. Already in 1861, Protestant missionaries had opened a college in Kottayam; Jacobites had also moved forward in the field of education. As a result, both Jacobites and Protestants were able to obtain posts in government offices. But the Suriani Catholics who had no opportunities for an English Education felt themselves regressing as a community. Even though the government of Thiruvithamcore put 5,000 rupees a year at the disposition of Catholics for English education, Marcelline did not make use of the 20,000 rupees, the sum of four years. Marcelline wrote to Rome, “… it is necessary to teach it (English), and of course I must consent, though in truth I fear its miserable consequences.” When pressure increased both from the Syrians and from the part of Rome, the missionaries planned to start a college, but in Kochi which was not a Syrian Catholic centre as Ernakulam or Alapuzha. Even Mellano was aware that the college of Kochi because ofd its location could not serve the Christians, especially Syrians. He wrote to his superiors: “ It is true that these students are not all Christians, there was not being such a big Christian community in Kochi, and a large part consists in Protestants, Muslims and Hindus. Any way there is hope for great results.” Thus the long expected college did not serve the wishes of Suriani Catholics.
The Suriani Catholics of Malabar contrasted themselves with the Jacobites and the other Oriental Catholic Churches which made them feel that it was their right to have autochthonous bishops. The Jacobites had two archbishops and seven bishops; Catholic Armenians, at that time numbering about 80,000 had eighteen diocesan bishops, and some titular bishops; Chaldeans still less in number had twelve bishops. Other Oriental Catholics as Rumenians, Ruthenians, Syrians, Maronites, Melchites and the Bulgarians had their own bishops. The Suriani Catholics, the largest Catholic Church outside Europe, did not have even a single bishop. An awareness of this reality, joined with the growing nationalist spirit, prompted the Syrians to struggle for autochthonous bishops. Natrionalist spirit was growing in the minds of Indians irrespective of cult and religion.
8.11. Church Cases
After the arrival of Mellus, the faithful in many parishes were divided into two groups, as Catholics and Mellusians. As dissension increased, some suits were filed in the civil court for the ownership of the churches. The Chittattukara church was one of the first to be repossessed by the Catholics. This Church was under the Padroado jurisdiction, of which the major part followed Mellus and the minority, the apostolic vicar of Varapuzha. A lawsuit began in 1875, in the District Court of South Malabar was judged in favour of the Mellusians. Appeal against the decree of the district judge was brought before the Madras High Court in 1877. In this suit, Leo Meurin, the visitor was leading the Suriani Catholics. When he had to go back to Bombay terminating the visit, he handed over to Fr. Nidiry the responsibility to deal with the church cases. In 1878, the High Court inferred that Mellus, who received a letter of recall, no longer possessed the authority of the Patriarch as a bishop over the congregation at Chittattukara. Velianadu, Palayoor, Aranattukara, Mattudesam, Chevvur and Arthatt church cases followed the Chittattukara case. Mar Abdiso Thondanatt, after four years of association with Mellus, was reunited already in August 1878. The parishes which welcomed Mellus reverted to Varapuzha on a piecemeal basis. Mellus’ vicar general Fr. Mathew Palakunnel too reunited. After reunion, Mar Abdiso Thondanatt remained as an ordinary priest in his parish Anakallumkal till January 10, 1882 when again he switched allegiance from Varapuzha to Mellus. At the request of Mellus, Mar Abdiso started administering the Mellusians with Elamthottam as his see. On March 5, 1882, Mellus returned from Malabar entrusting the Mellusians to Mar Abdiso and the Chaldean monk Augustine, giving them the faculty for blessing oil, for administering confirmation and ordinations up to acolyte. In September 1887, Mar Abdiso again approached Nidiry expressing hi desire to reunite. He was considered to be an apostate and the practice of the Holy See was to recognize apostates in the same grade as before their desertion. Mar Abdiso was received back to the Church in 1865 and in 1878 as a simple priest. Because of the position of Rome to receive him as a priest after an appropriate span of time and not to concede episcopal ministry or insignia, Mar Abdiso’s reunion never came about. He remained in Elamthottam near Pala and later went to Thrissur probably in late 1897.
8.12. Erection of Thrissur and Kottayam Vicariates.
One of the important steps taken by Leo XIII to organize the Church in India to settle the problems was the appointment of an apostolic delegate for India. On September 23, 1884, Antony Agliardi was appointed as the first Apostolic Delegate. The second important step was the concordat of June 23, 1886, between Leo XIII and the King of Portugal. The third step taken towards the organization of the Indian Church was the institution of the Indian Hierarchy. In the last quarter of the 19th century there were twenty vicariates and two apostolic prefectures in India. The decision of the Holy Father to institute the Catholic Hierarchy of India was promulgated by the apostolic letter Humanae Salutis Auctor dated September 1886. Christopher Bonjean, vicar apostolic of Jaffna and Francis Laouenan, Apostolic vicar of Pondichery prepared separate projects to organize the hierarchy. Both suggested to erect an episcopal see for the Suriani Christians.
Agliardi the apostolic delegate reached Malabar and visited Koonammavu first at the request of Marcelline and Mellano. Then he reached Mannanam along with Marcelline and remained there for a few days. He met the Suriani Carmelites on the following day. A good number of priests and representatives of the Suriani parishes visited Agliardi. His report on his visit to Malabar gives the actual situation of Malabar. He wrote: “the Suriani clergy in general are neither erudite nor well educated, but good. … Among them there are priests who surpassed many of the Carmelite Fathers who are now in the mission, for the doctrine acquired by private studies, for good manners and for ecclesiastical spirit. It could also be said with certainty that almost all of the Suriani Catholics, clergy and people, desire a bishop of their own rite; those whom I have seen on the contrary opinion have told me that they are one to six”. For the time being, he suggested that it would not be prudent to give them a bishop of their own, but pointed out the absolute necessity to do something immediately. He suggested to create two vicariates for the Syrians, the division between them being the Aluva river, with Thrissur in the north and Alapuzha in the south. He suggested that two European bishops of Latin rite be appointed. Though the Carmelites and also many other apostolic vicars of India held the idea that Indians and Suriani Catholics in particular were absolutely incapable of government and even less to be bishops, Agliardi thought that an Indian could be found with the same civilization and formation as a candidate from Europe. He wrote that he found many such candidates in Malabar and pointed out some of their good qualities for which other nationalities were wanting: “… the gentleness of the mind, the patience, the temperance and the respect towards the authority”. It is interesting to note some of Agliardi’s reasons behind the suggestion to divide the Suriani Catholics into two vicariates: it would show the good will of the Holy See top do some thing for the Syrians without prejudicing the question of a native bishop; it would divide the strength of the Syrians into two centers etc. he thought it would not be prudent to appoint native bishops as it would seem to be a victory they achieved over the Carmelite Order and it would have the appearance of being as the vindication of one of their rights. He suggested Carmelites again as apostolic vicars for the would-be-erected apostolic vicariates in Malabar. On December 20, 1886, the Propaganda Congregation decided to separate the Syrians from the Latins forming one or two vicariates under Latin prelates. An important decision taken at this assembly was to impede all possible contacts between the Chaldean Church and the Malabar Christians. The Congregation decided to entrust the vicariates to a religious institute other than Carmelites, preferably to Jesuits. The assembly of the apostolic vicars of South India to be convoked in early 1887 was to decide the details regarding the new vicariates. The January 25, 1887 Bangalore meeting praised the resolution of Propaganda and declared it opportune to create two Suriani vicariates. They suggested the division according to the natural limit of Aluva river which divides the region from Malayattoor to Kochi. They suggested Thrissur and Kottayam as for the residence of the bishops. Agliardi suggested Marcelline OCD for Thrissur and for the other Fr. Polycarp OCD.
Though Jesuits were not ready to take up the Suriani vicariates, after repeated request of the Congregation, presented two terne Along with the two terne, Anderledy suggested the name of Fr. Charles Lavigne. In case Jesuits refused the proposal, Agliardi recommended the election of two indigenous priests as apostolic vicars, but from the Latin rite. He suggested the name of Fr. Adolph Medlycott. At this juncture, when it took time for the Congregation to find two proper candidates, the Holy See decided to take prompt action to calm the faithful of Malabar. Holy Father thought fit to order the sending of the Brief for erection of the two apostolic vicariates for the Suriani Catholics in the cities of Thrissur and Kottayam. The Brief Quod jampridem dated may 20, 1887 was sent to Aiuti, the then apostolic delegate. The dealings with the Jesuits were kept secret so as not to clash with the susceptibility of the Carmelites.
By the time Agliardi was transferred to Rome and Andrea Aiuti was nominated as the new apostolic delegate. Suriani Catholics wrote many letters to the delegate stating that they appreciated the care and solicitude shown by the Holy Father and that their sentiments would vanish if what the Carmelites were saying was verified, i.e., the new apostolic vicars would again be Carmelites. The General Assembly of Propaganda on July 25, 1887 decided to nominate Msgr. Marcellinos OCD for Thrissur and Fr. Polycarp OCD for Kottayam. Notable was the change of mind on the part of the Congregation in favour of the Carmelites. In the absence of the secretary of Propaganda, the Holy Father took the report and resolution of the Congregation, on August 23, 1887. The Holy Father had before him a telegram of Aiuti to Agliardi the former apostolic delegate for India who was then working in Rome. “In all charity prevent His Holiness from nominating Marcelline and Polycarp as apostolic vicars for the Suriani Catholics; otherwise schism certain.” The Holy father ordered Agliardi to reply by telegram: “You are authorized to declare that the Holy Father has not nominated any Carmelite as apostolic vicar for the Suriani Catholics; letter follows”. The Holy Father nominated Fr. Charles Lavigne as vicar apostolic of Kottayam and Adolph Medlycott as the apostolic vicar of Thrissur.
8.12.1. Thrissur Vicariate
A part of the territory of Thrissur i.e., Chavakkad and Paraur taluks was spread in the Malabar province of the Madras presidency of British India and the other remaining part belonged to the kingdom of Thirukochi. Thrissur was the stronghold of Mellusians. Adolph Medlycott was born in 1835 in Chittagong, Bengal India, of European parents. He had his studies in Rome and upon returning to India, he worked as a military chaplain in Frozen, Punjab, when he was nominated apostolic vicar of Thrissur. Propaganda requested Aiuti to call Medlycott to him to confer the episcopal consecration and to give him opportune instructions because “he [Medlycott] is not exempt from some defects incompatible with such dignity…”.Majority of the parishes of Thrissur vicariate came from Varapuzha jurisdiction and about twenty churches came from Padroado. A good number of the churches were under Mellus before they joined Varapuzha. There were more than 100,000 faithful, 123 priests, 83 parishes and 22 chapels and around 5000 Mellusians. The social situation of the Christians was superior to that of the Christians of the neighbouring missions. The majority, according to Medlycott, did not know the rudiments of dogma. They were very attached to some religious practices and to the performance of certain formalities which they believed made them good Christians. The people in general led a satisfactory moral life. The most urgent need of the vicariate of Thrissur designed by Medlycott were: 1. elementary education, 2. A middle and upper school, 3. Erection of a minor seminary, 4. A girls school, a catechumenate for females, 6. A residence for the apostolic vicar and for the personnel and 7. Some good missionaries. On his way to Thrissur from Ootty where he was consecrated, he visited the Mellusian parish at Wadakanchery and that church yielded to him. Medlycott tried to introduce the teaching of catechism in the churches and parish schools. He constantly urged churches to start keeping the Blessed Sacrament. He arranged annual retreat for clergy and insisted on Sunday sermons and reestablished the custom of providing retreats for the faithful. He also began a minor seminary in Thrissur. Medlycott won the Palaur church suit and some other church cases. His attempt for reform was not easy, because he was very harsh with his subjects. He followed the counsel of Fr. Polycarp OCD which created diffidence among the Suriani Christians. Medlycott excluded natives from his refectory and that showed his attitude towards the natives. Medlycott was hesitant as was Lavigne , to appoint the vicar general and the counselors. The appointment was differed as Medlycott and Lavigne continued discussing the question of vestments for the native vicars general. While Lavigne suggested to appoint the vicar general for three years, Medlycott objected saying it could be inconvenient at times to retain the same person for three years. He also wanted that the pontifical insignia be the property of the apostolic vicar and remain in his custody. Later he appointed Fr. Varghese Mampilly as his vicar general and Frs. Paulos Malieckal, Francis Alappatt, Marcelline Menachery and Devasia Manavalan as counselors; Fr. John Menachery was appointed as secretary.
Medlycott tried hard to get some foreign missionaries. Even to teach in the minor seminary he found the native priests unfit. Regarding the moral aspect of the priests, some of the old and many young priests were exemplary, Medlycott held. According to him only 15% of the priests could be relied upon entirely. The construction of the residence for the bishop and his personnel gave him enough headache. He had insisted on paying five percent from the parishes which caused many complaints. He displayed keen interest in the formation of priests. The aspirants for priesthood were received in the minor seminary. He also sent some students to Rome. He disagreed with Lavigne on the location of the planned college; rather than at Kottayam he held that it should be located at a place central to both vicariates. As the project was deferred he started his own programme. Almost all the parishes started Malayalam elementary school, some more than one. Besides, there were also six elementary English schools and two English middle schools entrusted to native Carmelites. He started St. Thomas College in Thrissur which at his time had the form of an English middle school. Regarding church administration, Medlycott started examining the parish accounts, and made residence in the rectory compulsory for parish priests. He was badly in need of financial assistance for constructions. Entrusting the property of the mission to Fr. Rossi, the only foreign missionary who was in the vicariate, Medlycott left Thrissur in early 1896 for America.
8.12.2. Kottayam Vicariate
The Suriani Catholics south of the river Aluva were placed under the vicariate of Kottayam, one of the important cities in the kingdom of Thiruvithamcoor. There were 12,000 inhabitants according to the 1881 census; Catholics numbered around 300. Kottayam was the centre of the Syrian Orthodox Christians and this was one of the main reasons to select Kottayam as the residence of the apostolic vicar. Charles Louis Lavigne, was born on January 6,1840 in France. He was ordained priest in 1864 and later he became a Jesuit. He received episcopal consecration on November 13, 1887 at Marvejols, his native place. When he reached Mannanam, there were 25 to 30 thousand people with two elephants to receive him. The schism was almost extinct in the Kottayam vicariate except for Elamthottam, where Antony Thondanatt stayed. Lavigne planned a systematic development of the vicariate, building a college, a seminary, bishop’s residence and schools and orphanages all of which required an enormous amount of money. Though the Suriani Carmelites of Mannanam treated him well, he naturally wanted to have a residence for the apostolic vicar. A college to prepare the students for the public examination was an urgent need. Lavigne was interested in the reunion movements. In April 1888, Lavigne went to Ootty at the apostolic delegation with Mar Dionysius, the Jacobite metropolitan and Fr. Nidiry. The Suriani Christians both Catholic and non-Catholics, were divided from time immemorial into two sections: Nordists and Suddists [Vadakkumbhagar & Thekkumbhagar] As the separation of the Suriani Catholics from Latins was effected, the question of this division came into serious discussion for the first time. Most of the Suddist priests wanted to remain under Varapuzha. Mathew Makil, along with Nordist Varghese Valiaveettil (Vazhakulam, Muvattupuzha) went to Ootty to meet Aiuti as representatives of the apostolic vicar of Varapuzha. In Ootty, Makil submitted a petition of the Suddists as their representative to Aiuti. There were 15 to 20, 000 Suddists with 12 parishes and 21 priests and 100-109,000 Nordists with 133 parishes and 256 priests. The general picture of the vicariate in 1888 was as follows: Suriani Catholics 107,000; Priests 271; Seminarians 190; churches 96; chapels 49; seminary: besides the common seminary at Puthenpally there was one exclusively for the Syrians at Mannanam; religious men: 69; religious houses 5; Religious women: 25; religious houses 1, secondary schools 5 & primary schools 200. A petition of ten parish priests of the Suddist community dated November 21, 1887, requested the Holy Father to place them under Mellano or his coadjutor Marcellinos. Even before the arrival of Lavigne, the division was clear in Malabar, and from Lavigne’s very reception he had to face the division. During the reception the Suddists requested him for an occasion to read a special address after the official one. Lavigne agreed to do this on the following day. Aiuti and Lavigne found the only solution to resolve the problem forever was to give a separate administration for the Suddists. Aiuti had already informed Propaganda that the project for a separate vicariate for the Suddists was designed by archbishop Mellano and Carmelites of Varapuzha. Following Aiuti's proposals, the general assembly of Propaganda Fide decided to give a separate administration granting them a vicar general and two councilors. Thus though Mellano could not attain his objective, i.e., a special vicariate for the Suddists, his strategy proved to have a bad effect, the growth of a division among the Suriani Catholics. Mellano was vehemently opposed to the separate administration of the 200,000 Suriani Catholics comprised of 172 parishes, 360 priests, 213 seminarians and 59 religious priests. He wanted to erect a third vicariate for the Suddists who numbered 15-20,000, with 21 priests and 12 parishes.
8.12.2.1. A test for Lavigne
One of the first tests Lavigne had to face was an unpleasant incident that took place in his vicariate. The seminarians who studied at Mannanam at that time paid 3.5 rupees monthly. Seeing that amount was not sufficient to provide good and substantial food for the seminarians, Lavigne ordered the fee to be increased to 4 rupees. The seminarians received this communication negatively, 58 of them left the seminary and moved to Kottayam, where they asked for an audience with the apostolic vicar to set forth their complaints. Lavigne refused to receive them and entrusted Frs. Nidiry and Pazheparambil to persuade them to return to the seminary and ask forgiveness and pardon from their rector for their insubordin- ation. The seminarians followed the directives of Nidiry and were readmitted. After some time Lavigne reached Mannanam and following an inquiry, expelled 8 of them. This expulsion produced a very bad impression on all. Later Lavigne recognized Aiuti’s [delegate apostolic] reasons for readmitting the seminarians. Aiuti in order to save Lavigne, asked Paray Tharakan to approach Lavigne. Lavigne granted Parayil’s request, telling him that it was only because of his merits towards the Church that it was granted. But the Suriani Christians understood the drama properly.
8.12.2.2. Appointment of vicar general
Lavigne, like Medlycott, desired to prolong the appointment of vicar general. The reason they said was that they needed more time to know their priests. Aiuti wrote to the Congregation that “ And here I cannot but sincerely declare to your Eminence, as I have reason to believe, that the reluctance of those prelates is not longer that need,… Many times in speaking with me at Ootty and later also in writing to me they made allusions to the prelatical gown and to the pontifical ornaments which could be used by the two vicars general, …”. Without a doubt Nidiry was the most distinct priest among the Suriani Catholics. Such was the observation of the Congregation, but Lavigne did not want to appoint Nidiry. Nidiry was accused of proposing equal rights for the Jacobite and Catholic bishops in the college project and was considered as a ‘wicked man’ who, though Lavigne had no positive proof, would become a Jacobite if mar Dionysius offered him a good church. Carmelite missionaries always considered him as the leader of all the movements against them and who organized the petitions to Rome against Carmelites. Lavigne was aware of the urgency of appointing the vicar general, but his dislike for Nidiry prolonged the appointment. In order not to appoint Nidiry as vicar general, Lavigne recommended Nidiry and Pazheparambil for papal honours, but it was seemed a delicate matter to Propaganda. Aiuti clearly told Lavigne that if Aiuti were in Lavigne’s position, he would not have the courage to place the Prefect of the Propaganda in such a situation by insisting strongly. Even though Aiuti did not expect a change of mind from Lavigne, to his surprise, Lavigne decided to appoint Nidiry. “… St. Ignatius tells us that, after having informed the superiors, we must obey upon a sign of their will, without waiting for a formal command. The letter of Your Excellency manifests very clearly the will of the S. Congregation for the Propagation of Faith, who substitutes the Rev. Fr. General for me. Tomorrow without much delay, I will publish the nomination.” The nomination [on Sept. 8, 1889] was a surprise for Nidiry himself. His nomination was generally almost taken for granted. Lavigne nominated Makil Mathew as his vicar general for the Suddists.
8.12.2.3. College at Kottayam
To start a college at Kottayam was originally the idea of the Syrian Christian Association, the Jathyaykya Sangham, formed by Catholics and Jacobites under the leadership of Nidiry and Mar Dionysius. The general meeting of Propaganda on December 20, 1886 had decided to impede the erection of the mixed college for the Syrian Catholics and the Jacobites of Malabar. Neither Mar Dionysius nor Mr. Dharrah opposed the prohibition from the Holy See. Moreover Dharrah himself, instead of Lavigne, agreed to pay the price of half of the land to Mar Dionysius, so as not to cause embarrassment for the Jacobites. Lavigne was content with this conclusion and was ready to start the college at Kottayam despite his expressed reasons against the location of the college in Kottayam. Medlycott suggested that the college should be established at some other place central to both vicariates. Aiuti felt that only a direct intervention of the Holy See would solve the discord between Lavigne and Medlycott. Later, Lavigne wanted to change his ordinary residence to Changanassery so that he could direct the college, that would be built there. Propaganda did not find any difficulty in Lavigne’s desire to establish the college at Changanassery, but to change the ordinary residence of the apostolic vicar in order to direct the college needed the approbation of a general assembly of Propaganda. George Parayil was approached for financial help who agreed to help in some way, but not to the extent of erecting the college, as the family already had erected the Leo XIII school in Alleppey. A meeting of priests and lay representatives of the vicariate, [300 in number] was convoked on November 14, 1889, at Pala, on the occasion of the first Pontifical Mass by Nidiry. They decided on a contribution for the building and maintenance of the college as well as for the bishop’s residence, to find a way to assure the support of a bishop of that nation and his episcopal curia. They decided to contribute for six years, each parish 20% its annual income, parish priests 10 rupees each, other priests 8 rupees each and laity who paid a tax of 1% to the government, also contributed as much to this fund. The beginning of the institute [today’s St. Berchmans] was any way delayed till 1891.
8.12.2.4. Transfer of Residence from Kottayam to Changanassery
Because Kottayam was not a centre for Catholics, Lavigne wanted to change his residence to some other place where there was a greater number of the faithful. The 300 Catholics were mainly Suddists, and the Suriani Catholic church which existed in Kottayam belonged to the Suddists. Before the separation of the Syrians from Latins, there was one church under Varapuzha, the Good Shepherd’s church, which Lavigne without much discussion left to the Latins. The Congregation found no difficulty in the foundation of the college in Changanassery, but the difficulty was in the transferring of the apostolic vicar’s ordinary residence to Changanassery just to direct the college. To grant Lavigne the freedom to change his ordinary was in a way a modification of the brief Quod jampridem. A modification in the brief needed the approval of the general meeting of Propaganda and the approval of the Holy Father. General Assembly of Propaganda discussed the matter on September 15, 1890 and the decision was approved by the Holy Father on the following day, as follows: “Lavigne was granted the faculty to reside in Changanassery instead of Kottayam, however the Brief Quod jampridem remained unchanged; he would retain the title of the apostolic vicar of Kottayam and try to ameliorate the conditions of Kottayam, which could be the ordinary residence of the apostolic vicar in the future.” On March 19,1891, the residence was changed to Changanassery, where there were about 8,500 faithful. Lavigne made definitive the transfer of residence from Kottayam to Changanassery which Rome allowed provisionally. This irritated the people and clergy very much. Lavigne found it difficult to cope with the liturgy and liturgical life of the Suriani Catholics. In order to separate the Malabarians from the Chaldeans forever, Lavigne suggested translating the Roman Pontifical. The practice of fasting was another problem Lavigne encountered in Kottayam. Lavigne asked Rome for permission for himself and as well as for his secretary to conform to the regulations of the Latin Church in India on fasting and abstinence. Propaganda could not understand why he should feel obliged to follow the customs of the Syrians. The congregation of the Tertiaries of St. Francis of Assisi was founded by Lavigne at Pala and instituted also the visitation convent for the Suddists at Kaipuzha.
Though Lavigne nominated Nidiry his vicar general his diffidence continued. The change of residence increased the conflict. Under Nidiry’s leadership a land near Kuravilangadu was also suggested for the residence of the apostolic vicar, but it was not acceptable for Lavigne. Nidiry did not support a central seminary, and his attitude was considered by Lavigne as offensive since it was against his own wish and the plan of the Congregation to found a central common seminary, Puthenpally. The reunion attempts of Mar Dionysius was seen by Lavigne with doubt. He could not understand the attitude of Nidiry who did not want to unite with the Catholic Latins, but wanted to unite with the Jacobites. Lavigne had nothing against Nidiry possessing his two-wheeled horse carriage and recognized that it was necessary for his work. But he could not understand on what pretext, true or false, because of the difficult character of the horse, he used to make Fr. Aloysius Pazheparambil sit on the back seat, the very back where a servant sat. In April 1892, Lavigne removed Nidiry from the office of vicar general. Lavigne had a very difficult time in India. He could gain neither the confidence of his subjects nor popularity. The Suriani clergy and faithful were not happy either. The Suddists were happy since they got a quasi-separate administration. Priests along with lay leaders sent petitions to Rome and to the Chaldean Patriarch as well. Zaleski, the apostolic delegate gives the real picture in his letter to the Congregation: “Thus the relation in the vicariate of Kottayam, the apostolic vicar on one side and the people and clergy on the other is one of mutual dislike, of mutual distrust and, humanly speaking, there is no possibility that it could return to a normal state. In such a situation, in the beginning of September 1895, Lavigne left for Europe with Fr. Aloysius Pazheparambil. Following Lavigne’s departure, some telegrams were sent to Pope Leo XIII: “The misgovernment of Lavigne induced the Malabar Chaldeans to submit to the Chaldean Patriarch” and “Do not believe Bishop Lavigne and his Malabar companion. Place us under the Babylonian Patriarch. Petition follows. Malabar Chaldean churches.”
8.13. Carmelite missionaries and the Suriani Vicariates
The concordat between the Holy See and Portugal was signed on June 23, 1886, to settle the Padroado problem. According to the concordat, Varapuzha had to leave some of her churches under the re-established Padroado diocese of Kochi. In 1887, 180,000 Syrians were also separated from Varapuzha. Before the concordat and the separation of the Suriani Catholics, Varapuzha had 90,000 Latins and 180,000 Syrians. Now Varapuzha would remain with 29,081 faithful. In Leonardo Mellano’s own words, “… this archdiocese of Varapuzha would be in such a miserable state, not to say ridiculous, that it would be better for it to be changed into only an apostolic prefecture.” Mellano tried to get some more faithful under him some way or other. The first attempt was to get Alappuzha and Poongavu Latin parishes, telling that the Christians of those two parishes belonged to a different caste from those of the other surrounding churches. The Ezhunooticar who had been assigned to the diocese of Kochi wrote petitions to Rome requesting that they again be placed under Varapuzha. As the decree for the division of the Suriani Catholics from the Latins reached the apostolic delegate Aiuti, he invited Fr. Mani Nidiry to Ootty. Remaining there for some days Nidiry prepared the translation of the decree. Aiuti’s act of publishing the new disposition of the Holy see regarding the Syrians through the priors of the Syrian Carmelites of Elthuruth and Mannanam instead of through their local superior to whom they belonged till then was unbearable for Mellano. The reaction of the Carmelites had started manifesting itself in different ways. Wherever they found it possible to make use of the division among the Syrians, they turned it around to suit their purpose and the different factions of Suriani Christians, knowingly or unknowingly, started pleading for Carmelites and for a separate vicariate under them. When the separation of the Syrians from the Latins became a reality, the Suddists began to send petitions to Rome in favour of the Carmelites. Congregation informed Mellano through Aiuti, the impossibility to erect a third vicariate exclusively for the Suddists. Mellano did not favour a separate administration for the 200,000 faithful with 172 parishes and 360 priests, insisted for separate administration for 15-20,000 people with 12 parishes and 21 priests, on condition that it would be entrusted to a Carmelite bishop. When this attempt failed, a new endeavour began. Medlycott seems to have had some information regarding the scheming pro-Carmelite priests, as stated in a petition for the third vicariate. He asked Lavigne to take action with their leader Fr. George Valiaveettil who was then professor of Puthenpally seminary and whose local ordinary was Lavigne. Lavigne decided to remove him from the seminary, gave him the order to leave and to reside in the Arakuzha church as assistant. He sent the petitions in the name of more than thirty priests from the central part of the Malabar coast who formed Nadumissam kakshi. They requested that a third vicariate be formed in the centre of the Kottayam and Thrissur vicariates, with the possibility of entrusting it to bishop Marcelline OCD who remained without assignment. They envisaged the restoration of the ancient see of Ankamaly to form the third vicariate in the centre. Propaganda requested them to be obedient to the dispositions taken by the Holy Father. Later Zaleski, the delegate apostolic reproached Valiaveetil declaring that an attempt for a third vicariate would be considered as an act of insubordination to the Holy See and that the first time he would cause an upheaval, he would certainly be suspended. By this admonition the attempt for the third vicariate came to an end. Fr. Candid OCD, the vicar general of Varapuzha presented a special project to reunite the schismatics and the rebellious of the apostolic vicariate of Kottayam, but this project did not meet with the approval of Zaleski. Fr. Boniface OCD, rector of the inter-ritual seminary of Puthenpally, suggested to form a Syrian hierarchy creating an archbishop and two bishops, of course all Europeans but would have adopted the Suriani rite. Zaleski presented this project before the Congregation and suggested to make Boniface himself the Metropolitan archbishop. The Congregation believed that this proposal would be insufficient to suppress the movement to have autochthonous bishops.
8.14. Syrian national union association of Malabar (Nazrani Jathyaykya Smgham)
The concept of the Nazrani Jathyaykya samgham was developed by Fr. Mani Nidiry in collaboration with Mar Dionysius, the Jacobite metropolitan. They acquired a piece of land in Kottayam, called Woodlands estate. Since education was one of the association’s main objectives, Nidiry and Mar Dionysius planned to start a college in the Woodlands property. The association envisioned various broad sweeping projects to encourage clever students by sending them on for higher studies including to foreign countries, to undertake more schools both English and Malayalam, as well as schools for girls, to teach girls in each village the arts of stitching, music and painting, to start orphanages, reading rooms and libraries, to start a bank, shop-network and so on. The Cardinal prefect of Propaganda requested for exact information from Mellano regarding the association and Nidiry presented a copy of the statutes. The general assembly of Propaganda on December 20, 1886 which decided to separate the Syrians from Latins forming for them one or two dioceses under Latin bishops, had also decided to impede the erection of the mixed college for the Syrian Catholics and Jacobite, proposed by the Indian Christian Association. Aiuti, the apostolic delegate, though he appreciated Nidiry very much, had his distrust for the association under Nidiry’s leadership. Aiuti managed to convince Nidiry that the realization of the project was impossible. Thus the attempt for the Nazrani Jathyaykya Sangham was aborted through Aiuti’s diplomatic approach. Still, the reunion attempts of mar Dionysius continued with Nidiry himself as the intermediary.
8.15. Mar Dionysius’ reunion Attempts
Mar Dionysius was the head of the Jacobite Suriani Christians of Malabar, having his residence in Kottayam. The history of the Jacobites in Malabar went back to the Koonan Cross Oath taken on January 3, 1653, in the Mattanchery church. Eventually on Pentecost Sunday, May 22, 1663, twelve priests imposed hands on the Archdeacon calling him Archbishop Mar Thoma I. In 1665, Mar Thoma I invited Mar Gregorios, Jacobite bishop who propagated Jacobitism among his followers. In 1772, Mar Thoma VI received episcopal consecration from the Jacobite bishop Mar Gregory and took the name Mar Dionysius. His attempts for reunion through Mar Cariattil were not accomplished.
In February 1874, Mar Dionysius V visited Mellano at his residence expressing his desire to reunite with the Catholic Church along with his people and clergy. On April 26, 1888, Mar Dionysius along with Lavigne and Nidiry reached the residence of the apostolic delegate Aiuti in Ootty, where they remained for two days. Mar Dionysius, who was waiting for the court decision of the civil court cases, asked Lavigne for a loan of 20 to 25 thousand rupees. Mar Dionysius decided to write to the Holy Father. The questions regarding the reunion included the following: 1. Whether the Jacobite hierarchy would be conserved; 2. Whether Mar Dionysius and other bishops who converted along with him would be left in their respective sees, and whether they would be provided with an annual financial allowance unless there were another stable provisions for their subsistence; 3. Whether married priests at the time of the reunion would continue to live with their wives, by requiring celibac
8.1. The Pandari Schism
In November 1796, the Christians of Malabar sent four representatives with the letter of their king Rama Rajah and of their clergy and the people to the Chaldean patriarch of Mosul, Joseph IV. The letter contained their grievances against the Carmelites and their request for a native bishop. Patriarch Joseph IV was dead already in 1791 and Mar John Hormez was the administrator of the Patriarchate. Having received the delegation from Malabar, Mar John wrote to Propaganda Fide on November 25, 1796. In his letter he showed no doubt regarding his right of jurisdiction over the Malabar Christians. In December Hormez wrote again to Rome. Without having obtained any answer from Rome, Mar John Hormez, after 16 months, decided to ordain Paul Pandari, one of the four from the deputation. Thus Mar Paul Pandari was consecrated bishop by Archbishop John. He was not ordained for Malabar but as a titular bishop for the monastery of St. Behnan, near Mosul. Pandari’s written profession of faith was then sent to Rome. After the consecration Pandari returned to Malabar. Mar Hormez’s letter reached Rome on March 17, 1797. On May 10, 1799 the Congregation sent him a reply expressing its regret on the distressing event of which Mar Hormez himself was the only author.
The Congregation stated that Mar John had no authority to consecrate a bishop for a nation which neither belonged to him nor was of his rite. Syrians of India, they concluded, depended immediately upon the Holy See and Mar John was asked to call back Pandari or suspend him from the ministry and from episcopal functions as long as he was not rectified by the Holy See. The Congregation wrote also to Msgr. Aloysius Mary, the apostolic vicar of Malabar that he might bring Pandari back to the obedience of the Holy See. Mar Hormez replied immediately explaining the circumstances in which he consecrated Pandari. On January 20, 1800 he wrote again to the Congregation two letters expressing sorrow rather than astonishment. Mar Hormez justified himself, saying that he thought it opportune to send a bishop to Malabar in the person of Pandari, but not with jurisdiction, just to help them in their despair, other wise they would have become heretics or idolaters. He held the view that the Congregation could not find fault with him because he consecrated Pandari only after waiting for a reply from Rome for one year and four months. He concluded that the Congregation did not want to answer nor to solve the problem. Finally respecting the order given to him, Mar Hormez agreed to call back Pandari
Mar Paul Pandari, titled Mar Abraham, reached Malabar in March 1798 and was, with the two Chaldean priests, welcomed by the people. Msgr. Aloysius Mary went to the ecclesiastical administrator Thomas Paremmakkal and inquired about Pandari. They endeavored to accept Pandari as a simple priest. At this time the Syrian Christians of the Archdiocese of Kodungalloor had no bishop to confer the sacraments of confirmation and ordination either in their diocese or in Kochi. So they turned to their own bishop who just came from Baghdad. The events took another turn when Thomas Paremmakkal died on March 19, 1799. Priests and two representatives from each parish met together [yogam] to decide on the future. They decided to elect one among the twelve priests [The yogam of February 2, 1784 decided that the twelve priests selected from among the Suriani priests should work for the spiritual good of the faithful and should live in those places designed by their ecclesiastical head; if any one of these dies, then the rest should select the twelfth one; the spogli should belong to this group and not to the family members of the deceased ones; …] Ukken Varghese (Kaliparambu), Thekkekara Chakkuriathu (Velianad), Pazhayattil Itticheriathu (Puthenchira), Cheramel Geevarghese (Chalakudi), Urumpathu Abraham (Angamaly), Thachil Abraham (Kuthiathodu), Kachappillil Ouseph (Chennamangalam), Muttanthottil Korathu (Pattamana Paravur),Kattakayam Abraham (Pala), Plathottathil Thoma (Anakkallu), Illikkal Punnus (Chunkam) & Thekkekkara Kunjicheriathu (Changanassery) were those twelve representatives. Accordingly, after the death of the gubernador, the twelve automatically took up the responsibility to elect one vicar general, and that in the person of Kattakayam Abraham Malpan. Documents differ regarding the how of the election. Bernard Thoma (Mar Thoma Christians, 231-232) basing on the local manuscripts wrote: Paul Pandari, with the advice of the 12 priests, elected one among them as the vicar general. The Apostolic vicar of Malabar, Msgr. Aloysius Mary wrote to the Congregation that convinced of the inability and insufficiency of Mar Pandari to govern the churches, those who met at Changanassery forced him to declare as the governor one of their important teachers called Abraham Malpan. At any rate, the rule of the archdiocese came into the hands of the illegitimate vicar general Abraham Malpan. Illegitimate because, the community had no right whatsoever to elect their vicar general.
On April 13, 1799 the representatives of the churches met in a church at Changanasery and recognized Mar Pandari as their bishop. They also presented some of their clerics to be ordained priest by him and he did so. Mar Paul Pandari, although an illegitimate bishop, could exercise the episcopal functions as he was supported by the new vicar general. Only a few Syrian Catholic churches declared formal obedience to the new vicar general and to Mar Paul Pandari, and slowly the number of churches which declared obedience increased, which came up to 29.
8.2. Reunion of Mar Dionysius I
An interesting event that happened at this time was the temporary reunion of Mar Dionysius I and his followers with the Catholic Church. We do not know whether the initiative was from the illegitimate bishop Mar Paul Pandari or from the unauthorized vicar general Kattakkayathil Abraham Malpan or from mar Dionysius himself. With the intention of reunion the representatives of the Jacobites headed by Mar Dionysius and the those of the Catholics, headed by Mar Pandari met in the Holy Cross Church at Alappuzha and signed an agreement on May 20, 1799. They came to the following conclusion:
Now we of both parties unitedly agree on oath to be united as were our forefathers, and to submit ourselves to the Holy Father the Pope, celebrating the mass, reciting the breviary, observing the fasts and other rites as they were prescribed by the Synod of Diamper and to inform the Holy Father the Pope accordingly, with a view to obtaining his permission to conduct all ceremonies according to the Syro-Chaldean rite of those who are in union with the Holy Roman Church. Moreover, we agree that those who accepted and at present retain the Jacobite creed and rites shall abjure them and make the profession of Faith prescribed by Pope Urban VIII for the Orientals and submit to the orders of His Holiness the Pope. …
Mar Dionysius with a few followers according to the prescribed formula which they already had prepared, on June 11, 1799, formally embraced the Catholic faith at St. Michael’s church, Thathampally, before bishop Pandari and declared the acceptance of the Synod of Diamper. Then Mar Pandari in the name of Archbishop Mar John Hormez, absolved Mar Dionysius from ecclesiastical censures. This was followed by a solemn Mass celebrated by the reunited prelate according to the rite prescribed by the Synod of Diamper. All this was concluded with a public document, rendering Mar Dionysius’ faction to pay a sum of 30,000 Rupees to the Thiruvithamkoor government, in case he might go against the decision. It was a general practice of the time in Malabar to pay a sum of money to the government when making public contracts [pecuniary sanction]. There is difference of opinion about the pecuniary sanction: Fr. Placid held, “Among other things, this condition has been the subject of special comment on the intention of Mar Dionysius I. Some say that the sum of money in question was a debt he had contracted with the Thiruvithamkoor government and that Thachil Mathu by his influence made the king condone the debt, declaring Mar Dionysius liable to pay it up only if he abandoned the Catholic Church. Others say that Mathu Thachil, after making Mar Dionysius a debtor, forced him to become a Catholic. Yet others say that the latter sought an opportunity to fish in troubled waters, hoping he could rule over the Catholic Syrians who were not then on good terms with their Latin authorities. (PODIPARA, The Efforts for Reunion, 92, See also KOLLAPARAMPIL, Mar Dionysius the Great, 186-187.) Whatever the case be, this reunion could be considered as the epilogue to all the reunion attempts of Dionysius I with the good intention. He had been working for not less than 35 long years for reunion. [For the reunion attempts of Mar Dionysius see, KOLLAPARAMPIL, Mar Dionysius the Great 151-184]. However this reunion was not a legitimate one since there was no legitimate Church authority behind it. After the formal reunion at Thathampally the pseudo vicar general with another Malpan came to the Apostolic vicar of Malabar Aloysius Mary, to inform him of the happenings and asked him to inform the Holy See. The apostolic vicar did not give ear to their request.
The Archbishop of Goa sent to Malabar Fr. Aloysius of St. Joseph de Remibar, a Franciscan, as gubernador of Kochi. He instructed the Syrians not to communicate with the schismatics adhering to the intruder bishop Pandari and the illegitimate vicar general Kattakayam. Rebimar, through the apostolic vicar of Malabar collected a list of priests from the Syrian Catholics. The list presented by the Syrians met at Holy Cross Church at Alappuzha, had the following names: Sankoorikal Geevarghese, Thottakattu Chacko Kuriathu, Thachil Abraham & Plathottathil Thomas. Sankoorikal Geevarghese [He had his studies in Propaganda] was appointed as the administrator of Kodungalloor. The appointment of a new vicar general left the pseudo vicar general no chance to remain in his office. This effected in Mar Pandari’s loosing his influence among the people. Mathu Tharakan fell into disgrace with the Thiruvithamkoor government. Thus one after another the supporters of Mar Dionysius lost their influential stands. Mar Dionysius could then understand that what he had accomplished at Thathampally had no meaning at all. He could not find any Latin authorities well-disposed to promote his cause. Keenly aware of his uncertain status and futile position, in December 1799 he reverted to Jacobite faith, after six months of Catholic life. He had to pay the government the accorded stipulation and before being reinstated in the former office, as a penance he had to celebrate 40 Masses at his own expense. Mar Dionysius eventually turned to the Church Missionary Society.
8.3. The Church Missionary Society
In 1806, an English clergyman Rev. Claudius Buchanan, who was chaplain of the English East India Company, visited Malabar. At the request of the British Resident, the Church Missionary Society sent Rev. Thomas Norton to Malabar in 1816. Benjamin Baily (1816), Joseph Fenn (1818) and Henry Baker (1819) were the first missionaries who worked among the Syrians. The relations between the Syrian Church and the missionaries began to fade due to many reasons. In spite of the material prosperity and cultural progress, the union of Jacobites with the Anglicans affected their faith badly even causing many splits in the community. With the Mavelikara Synod of 1836, the Jacobites dissolved all connections with the Church Mission. The Carmelite missionaries were on guard against the spread of Protestantism among the Suriani Catholics.
8.4. The Period after Schism
The new vicar General, Sankoorickal could get the support of the English resident at Kochi. As the English resident wrote to both the kings of Thiruvithamkoor and Kochi, the king of Kochi wrote to the new vicar general to stay in the church near to his palace, and to the Christians to take the new vicar general as their superior if they would like. During the Pandari schism the churches of the Suriani Christians were divided in three jurisdictions: Padroado, Propaganda and Chaldean. By this time the order from Propaganda Fide regarding Mar Pandari reached Malabar. The faithful were informed of the suspension of Mar Pandari. He then went to the vicar apostolic of Malabar and expressed his readiness to stay in the seminary for the Syrians. He then left to the mountains and later he was seen going from place to place to find a settlement. On July 5, 1800, the Thiruvithamkoor government announced the Royal declarations allowing the Syrian Catholics of Malabar to choose either Kodungalloor of Padroado or vicariate apostolic of Malabar under Propaganda. The Angamaly church with some other churches declared their allegiance to the apostolic vicar. That lead to the reestablishment of the system that prevailed before 1786, i.e., before the appointment of Mar Cariattil as archbishop of Kodungalloor for all the Syrians. This revived the inter-jurisdictional and intra-jurisdictional problems in Kodungallore and in Malabar vicariate. Although it was the right of the Syrian Catholics to be under their head in the see of Kodungalloor according to the age old tradition, Propaganda represented by the apostolic vicar Aloysius Mary wanted to take to his jurisdiction as many churches as possible. This lead to conflict between the vicar apostolic and the vicar general.
The general assembly of Propaganda Fide on March 30 and later on September 23, 1801 discussed the matter of Malabar. After discussions, the cardinals decided:1) To give faculty to Bishop Pandari to be absolved from the irregularity and to confirm approval, a cautela if he had incurred a suspension because of his acts; 2) To give faculty to Mar John to be absolved, a cautela, from the irregularity if incurred in his acts in the case of the jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldeans of Malabar; 3) To give faculty to Mar John to depute Mar Iso’yahb Guriel, the bishop of Salsmat, as his vicar in Malabar with full jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldean Catholics; and also in those dioceses of the Latin rite where the Latin prelates cannot exercise jurisdiction over the Syro-Chaldeans and 4) To depute the apostolic vicar of Bombay as visitor in Malabar with all the faculties. The report of the General Assembly of April 13, 1807, states that the ‘provisions’ taken in the General Assembly of September 23, 1801 over the Syro-Chaldeans of Malabar have not been executed. The documents speak little about the last days of Pandari. In March 1807, the Bombay apostolic vicar wrote about his departure from Bombay to Bassora and then to Mosul to his consecration.
8.5. Propaganda vs. Padroado
By January 1802, 37 Syrian churches came under the subjection of the apostolic vicar of which 10 were from the former schismatic faction. Though in 1803, Msgr. Raymond of St. Joseph OCD an Italian Carmelite was nominated as the successor of Aloysius Mary as vicar apostolic, he was consecrated only on January 3, 1808. During the time of Aloysius Mary, there were four missionaries, but when Msgr. Raymond took charge there was only one, Fr. Prosper, who was very new to the mission of Varapuzha. The years of Msgr. Raymond witnessed pitiable and rather scandalous events. It was decided to remove him for his inappropriate behaviour i.e.,
Immoderate use of wine, alienation from the religious practices and devotions, irreverence in performing the sacred functions of his pastoral office, the lewd way of behaviour in public with the youth and women, either Christians or gentiles…
Msgr. Raymond died on July 7, 1816, before the letter of his dismissal and the brief of appointment of Francis Xavier reached Malabar. From 1804 to 1817, the vast mission of Malabar was governed by only two missionaries. One among them was Fr. Prosper who was accused of immoral character and even apostasy and was forced to leave the house of Varapuzha. Fr. Francis Xavier declined to take up the responsibility as the apostolic vicar of Malabar and the apostolic vicar of Mogul, Bombay, Msgr. Peter Alcantara was in charge of the vicariate. In July 1818, Congregation decided to appoint Fr. Prendergast as the vicar apostolic of Malabar. Fr. Prendergast had so many qualifications in studies and knowledge in several languages and had virtues that would help him in the missionary work in Malabar. Rome’s satisfaction in the person of Prendergast and in his election as apostolic vicar of Malabar did not last long. He found himself out of place in Malabar. His fellow missionaries accused him of behaving in a manner unworthy of a bishop and inhuman and unjust towards others. In addition, he was found guilty of immorality. Propaganda, with the approval of the Pope appointed Msgr. Maurilius Stabililni, coadjutor of the apostolic vicar of Mogul to inquire about the accusations against Msgr. Prendergast. On receiving Msgr. Stabilini’s report from Malabar, the Congregation decreed on May 5, 1827 that Msgr. Prendergast be removed from the office. Msgr. Stabililni was made the interim apostolic vicar of Malabar. He too could not rise up to the expectations. The fishermen problem, the jurisdictional problem between the dioceses of Kodungalloor and Kochi and the apostolic vicariate of Malabar as well as the problems between himself and his vicar general, the sole missionary in Varapuzha and so on made him to wish to return to Europe. Propaganda decided to withdraw Stabilini in 1831 and to appoint Francis Xavier. Stabilini left Malabar in January 1833. When Francis Xavier reached Malabar there was only one missionary, Fr. Nicholas. (In buying and selling of Mass wine he used to make great profit. Conforming to the order of the Congregation he left for Bombay in 1834. In the same year two missionaries reached Malabar vicariate, and in 1836 two more reached there. Francis Xavier died in December 1844.
8.5.1. Padroado
(On August 4, 1600, the right of patronage over the archdiocese of Angamaly was granted to the Portuguese by Pope Clement VIII through the bull In Supremo.) The division among the Mar Thoma Christians due to the Latinization policy of the Portuguese and the double or triple jurisdiction over the same community are the consequent pitiable results of the Padroado in Malabar. The line of succession of Jesuit prelates continued till the appointment of the autochthonous archbishop Mar Cariattil in the See of Kodungalloor. After him no prelate either Portuguese or native ruled Kodungalloor. In the initial years of the 19th century Fr. Sankoorikal was the administrator of Kodungalloor followed by a series of Portuguese priests who were appointed governadors. A letter from the parish of Thalassery to Propaganda in 1836 says that “For the whole period of 60 years the above see [Kodungalloor] has been filled by certain regular priests appointed by the government of Portugal under the title of governors and who receive their jurisdiction from the metropolitan of Goa.” All these appointments were nominal and provisional, with the result that the Padroado rule in Malabar at this period was just a device to hold their name and fame. [Fr. Paul of St. Thomas Aquinas was administrator of Kodungalloor. He was consecrated on March 4, 1821 at Goa, took charge of the archdiocese of Kodungalloor in January 1823 and died on December 19, 1823.]
The jurisdictional controversies became acute in the nineteenth century when Padroado could not provide bishops to the sees under their jurisdiction. The apostolic vicars who were against the inadequate and anachronistic existence of the Padroado in India demanded to get extended their jurisdiction over all the faithful. The jurisdictional controversies sometimes reached the point of calling the other section enemy. The jurisdictional controversies between Padroado and Propaganda took a new turn in 1838 with the brief Multa praeclare. According to the 1786 report of Aloysius Mary, there were 46 Syrian parishes and 14 chapels and 17 Latin parishes and 11 chapels in the vicariate apostolic of Malabar while there were 41 Syrian parishes and 44 Syrian Jacobite parishes, six of them were common to the Syrians and Latins; three were dependent upon the apostolic vicar and three upon the archbishop of Kodungalloor. There were 117 Syrian priests and 47 Latin priests and 70,500 Syrians and 30,100 Latins.
8.5.2. Towards the suppression of Padroado
The deplorable situation of the Church of India under Padroado jurisdiction in the first decades of the 19th century necessitated the intervention of Rome to provide for the needs of the faithful in those dioceses. Card. Pedicini, the prefect of Propaganda Fide wrote to the ambassador of Portugal to Holy See regarding the necessity of approaching the king of Portugal, requesting him to see to the need of the spiritual care of the Catholics in the missions in India. The archdiocese of Kodungalloor from 1750 till 1838 had one archbishop only in the first 26 years; from 1777 to 1838 there was only one archbishop for a period of eleven years. Kochi from 1800 onwards had no bishop. Mylapore from 1759 till 1838, a period of 32 years had one bishop; from 1800 onwards the see was vacant. From the beginning of the nineteenth century the vacant sees of Kodungalloor, Kochi, and Mylapore were put under the immediate jurisdiction of the archbishop of Goa. Against the right of patronage the Portuguese could not fulfill their obligations for the provision and maintenance of their dioceses in India. Lack of seminaries for the formation of clergy was an important problem. The revolution of 1834 in Portugal lead to the suppression of Religious Orders (1834-35) and the rupture of diplomatic relations with Holy See. The English political supremacy in India reduced the Portuguese power to very limited areas. On the basis of the new political situation in India and the desolate situation of the Church under Padroado, the general assembly of Propaganda held on July 9, 1833, discussed what was to be done for the spiritual welfare of the Catholics in those regions where the English had already established their political supremacy. The Cardinals decided to induce the English government to take necessary steps favorable to Catholics in India and it had positive results. Sensing the need to repair the difficulties in the Church in India, the Holy Father, Pope Gregory XVI decided to take new steps to give the Church liberty from the state, even though it was detrimental to the demands of the Padroado. The earlier decision of Rome to provide missionaries in those places where there was no Church presence at all was not met with opposition from the Portuguese Padroado in India. Since the Portuguese were unable to provide missionaries for many areas claimed to be under their control, the Holy See had no choice but to appoint apostolic vicars for those areas where there was no Church presence all. Calcutta or Bengal was erected an apostolic vicariate under Propaganda on April 18, 1834. Taking into consideration the protest of the Portuguese clergy in Calcutta, the Holy Father on December 27, 1834 ordered them to hand over the churches to the apostolic vicar. But they protested vigorously. The Portuguese held that the Pope should have got permission from the Portuguese and English governments before the erection of the new vicariate. “There is no need to recognize any authority in the head of the Portuguese nation to regulate anything temporal or spiritual with in the limits of the British territory” was the English position. [Letter of the governor of Calcutta APF acta 199. F. 238r. 1835]. On August 4, 1835 the Pope repealed the brief of 1606 of Pope Paul V [Hodie Sanctissimus erecting the diocese of Mylapore] . (New vcariates were erected: Madras, Bengal, Pondichery, Madura, Ceylon). Msgr. Francis Xavier the apostolic vicar of Malabar informed Propaganda that the administrator of Manoel de S. Joakim Neves, a Portuguese Dominican was causing great trouble in Malabar in the Diocese of Kochi. Pope Gregory XVI himself was in background of the steps taken in favour of the appointment of apostolic vicars in the Padroado sees. In conformity with the ideas of the Pope, a draft of the brief Multa Praeclare was prepared. After discussions in two general assemblies [Sept.19, 1836 and December 18, 1837], the Brief Multa praeclare was published on April 24, 1838. The consequences of the Brief were many and varied both in India and in Portugal. The opposition from the part of the Padroado clergy was very strong. The great opponents of the Brief were the Goan group under the leadership of Fr. Antonio Carvalho, the archbishop elect of Goa and Fr. Antonio Teixeira, the bishop elect of Madras. [Their argument was Jus Patronatus was not privilegio grazioso but privilegio acquisto that cannot be denied even by the same pontiff].
8.5.3. ‘Goan Schism’
Seeing the efforts of the Padroado clergy to hold to the right of patronage, preaching even against the authority of the pope, Msgr. Francis Xavier on April 19, 1838, wrote a circular letter prohibiting his subjects to have communion with those who maintain the schism. Soon after the brief reached Malabar on September 4, 1838, Msgr. Francis Xavier promulgated it in whole Malabar but with little effect in the ex-diocese of Kochi. Although Francis Xavier sent a copy of the brief together with an exhortative letter ex-governor Neves, the schismatics accused that the brief and the circular letters were composed by the apostolic vicars in India and were false. Neves could find 12 Syrian priests of the archdiocese of Kodungalloor to stand against the decision of the Pope, but he had the support of not a single Syrian parish. In October 1838, only two churches of Kochi followed the apostolic vicar. By Feb. 1839, 20 churches of Kochi followed him but still 50 remained with Neves. Before the promulgation of the brief, the administrator of Kodungalloor, Fr. Peixoto died and before his death he expressed his wish that the Syrians in his archdiocese would go to the jurisdiction of the apostolic vicar of Malabar. On April 10, 1840, Francis Xavier was made archbishop. A letter of Francis Xavier to the Congregation on September 14, 1840shows that in central Malabar only two churches and two oratories were in schism and all others were under the archbishop. The temporal suppression of Padroado jurisdiction and the consequent end of the conflicts between the two jurisdictions did not satisfy the Suriani Catholics. [The resistance has been called the Goan or Indo-Portuguese schism by many authors. The term schism appears frequently in Papal pronouncements, however do not call the Goans schismatic (except four priests in Bombay) but only openly disobedient. According to the 1886 concordat, the ecclesiastical province of Goa under Padroado was to comprise of three more dioceses: Kochi, Mylapore and Daman, with the further title of Kodungallore. After India Independence in 1947 a new concordat limited the Padroado to Portuguese territory, i.e., Goa. In 1961 when India occupied Goa, Padroado terminated in India.
8.6. Rocos Schism
In 1833, there were 41 parishes, 106 priests 25 deacons 30,607 faithful and 11 filial churches under the jurisdiction of the vicar apostolic of Malabar (Varapuzha). After the suppression of Padroado most of the Syrian parishes came under Varapuzha. In 1855? Archbishop Bernardine Bacinelli OCD of Varapuzha gave orders to stop the malpanate system of priestly formation, which was the practice among the Suriani Catholics. He declared that only those candidates who had studied at Puthenpally seminary under Carmelite missionaries or at Mannanam, Elthuruth or Vazhakulam under native Suriani Carmelites would be ordained. The Suriani Catholics placed under Padroado did not have a bishop in Malabar to ordain their candidates. That might have been the main reason why they approached the Chaldean Patriarch who sent to Malabar Mar Rocos. Under the influence of Dhanah Barjona, who reached India in 1853, was staying at the Kuravilangadu church, some St. Thomas Christian leaders- especially from the Portuguese Padroado- came together in 1854 at Kuravilangadu and resolved to send representation to the Chaldean Church. Two priests, Antony Kudakachira and Antony Thondanatt were to lead the delegation. They started for Baghdad in 1857. Kudakachira died there and Thondanatt took up the leadership. In 1861 Thondanatt came back to Kochi with Mar Rocos who was sent by the Chaldean Patriarch., Mar Audo. Already in 1860, Pope Pius IX had asked the Patriarch not to interfere in Malabar affairs. The great majority of the Suriani Catholics followed Mar Rocos since he claimed to have been sent by the Patriarch at the order of the Pope. He visited many parishes: Vadayar, Kaduthuruthy (both Little and Great), Kumarakam, Muttuchira, Kuravilangadu and Athirampuzha and ordained more than a hundred. At the order of the Pope, Patriarch Audo had to recall Mar Rocos on September 7, 1861, but eighty-six full parishes and thirty-one partial parishes had already joined the Rocos schism. Thondanatt accompanied Mar Rocos, received episcopal consecration from the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Shim’un, and returned to Malabar as Mar Abdiso. After the return of Mar Rocos most of the churches were reintegrated into Varapuzha. Those churches which did not joint Varapuzha (most of them north to Varapuzha and two churches in the south) were in a vicious circle: they did not want to go back to Varapuzha, but the option for Padroado was not available. They followed Antony John Santimano who lived in Kollam as gubernador of the Goan schismatics. In 1863, after the return of Mar Rocos, Archbishop Salvator Saba reached Malabar coast as apostolic commissary with a lay representative of the Portuguese king. The purpose of their commission which began in 1861 was to put into effect the concordat of 1857 between the Holy See and Portugal. Among the terms of the concordat, it was endorsed that those churches and Christians under Propaganda and those under Padroado on the day of the signing of the concordat, were to maintain their status quo. On April 21, 1863, Saba ordered the churches in Malabar to decide within eight days either for Varapuzha, or for Portuguese Padroado. Under Varapuzha there were104 churches, 37 under Padroado; while 16 churches had two communities, one under Varapuzha and the other under Kodungalloor of Padroado.
When the see of Kodungalloor was reestablished, as a result of the 1857 concordat between Holy See and Portugal, some followers of Rocos joined the Padroado; but there was no bishop in Malabar under Padroado. This remained a great problem, especially with regard to the ordination of seminarians. According to an order given by the papal commissary, Archbishop Saba, that “… all those who were ordained by Mar Rocos should remain in those minor orders until the reception of an order from the Vatican; there were among Suriani Catholics, seven priests and more than a hundred clerics who received other minor orders from Rocos. They waited for an arrangement from Rome, but after many years and repeated petitions, they received no positive sign from Rome. Some of them again sent petitions to Patriarch Audo asking for a bishop. The Patriarch still claimed powers of jurisdiction over the Church of Malabar. The Patriarch came forward with his arguments in the First Vatican Council in 1869, but no clear cut decision was taken, since the Council came to an early end. The apostolic vicar of Varapuzha, Msgr. Leonardo Mellano OCD, who was in Rome for Vatican I, asked permission to receive the Suriani Christians from Under Padroado. Propaganda advised him to receive the at their request without endangering the 1857 concordat. According to this permission, 18 churches which followed Padroado fully and 8 churches partially, were accepted into the Varapuzha jurisdiction; 4 churches which followed Padroado fully, split into two communities, of which one accepted Varapuzha jurisdiction, whereas 15 churches fully and twelve partially remained under Padroado. Fr. Kuriakose Chavara TOCD who took lead in fighting against the Rocos schism was made vicar general of Varapuzha, but when Propaganda inquired about him to make him a bishop for the Syrians, the apostolic vicar presented him to be too old to nominate bishop. Thus the Suriani Christians had practically no hope to have a native bishop.
According to the report of Msgr. Bonnand, (the Visitor of all the Vicariates of East India), prepared in 1861, there were 233,000 Christians in the vicariate of Varapuzha, with 263 parishes, seven missionaries, 418 native priests and 40 thousand Christians under Padroado jurisdiction. Varapuzha was entirely different from other vicariates of the Indian subcontinent in the number of Catholics, churches and native priests. The mission with the second highest number of native priests was Mangalore with 18 priests. Besides the numerical difference, the visitor categorized he churches in India into three: churches of the Suriani Christians had all that was needed and the income was administered carefully; in the churches of Portuguese origin the temporalities of the missions were firmly stabilized and where there was insufficient annual income to manage, they used to impose contributions and tithes; the other Christian communities, for the maintenance of missionaries had to depend mainly on the resources provided by Propaganda or on government subsidy for the military chaplains.
8.7. Mellus Schism
Under the initiative of a Chaldean monk, Philip Aziz, who came to Malabar for a second time to collect money, the Chaldean Patriarch yet again sent a bishop, Mar Elia Mellus, to Malabar who reached Bombay in August 1874. In spite of the efforts of Msgr. Leo Meurin, the then apostolic vicar of Bombay, he reached Thrissur on October 21, 1874. As Mar Mellus reached Malabar, Mar Abdiso [Antony Thondanatt], the parish priest of Edamattam who had been reconciled with the Catholic Church, relapsed and joined him. The parishes of Suriani Catholics which followed Mar Mellus were mainly in the North of Varapuzha and in such places as Kuravilangadu, which were under Padroado. Mar Mellus also ordained many in Malabar, and, at his request, another bishop, a certain Mar Philip Jacob Uraha reached Malabar from Persia. The Mellusian schism was a stronger movement than that of Rocos, increasing confusion and division among the Suriani Catholics of India. From various signals from Malabar, Propaganda sensed that the situation was growing out of Mellano’s control. The arrival of Mar Philip Jacob and the association of Mar Abdiso with Mellus were alarming. There were also Carmelite missionaries like Fr. Leopold of St. Joseph OCD, who wanted a separation of Suriani Catholics from Latins. It was he who took the lead to write petitions to Propaganda at the end of 1873. Some disciples of Fr. Leopold from Mannanam TOCD house, started writing petitions against the apostolic vicar Mellano who expelled seven of them from their religious houses. (Paul Sankoorickal, Mathew Matheikal, Emmanuel Meenattoor, Joseph Chiavara, Varghese Irumpan, Hilarios Tharavattathil & Aloysius Pazheparambil are known as seven ‘dolores’). In this background, in spite of Mellano’s objection, The Roman Congregation Propaganda Fide decided to send Msgr. Leo Meurin s.j., Apostolic vicar of Bombay, as apostolic visitor of Malabar.
8.8. Msgr. Leo Meurin s.j., Apostolic Visitor of Malabar.
Meurin already had presented the Malabar situation before the Congregation. Meurin’s frequent reports confirmed the urgency of nominating a separate bishop for them and this attitude of Meurin increased the Suriani Catholic’s desire for a separate bishop if not autochthonous. Mellano considered Meurin’s policy unbearable, the Carmelites considered Meurin a partisan of the Suriani Catholics and the missionaries and their devotees wrote to the Holy See against him. The dissension between Meurin, the apostolic visitor, and Mellano, the apostolic vicar, prompted Propaganda to discuss the issue in a general assembly in 1876 and wrote to Meurin that ‘he went beyond the Holy See’s instruction and, because of his strategy, instead of pacifying the Malabarians their unrest increased. As long as Meurin remained in Malabar, he was asked, he should proceed strictly according to Propaganda’s instructions trying proficiently and with prudence to taper off the hope given to the Suriani Christians’. On the other hand Mellano was advised to observe the utmost temperance and tenderness towards the Suriani faithful, priests and the Suriani Carmelites. Propaganda’s new directives did not change Meurin’s conviction that the only remedy for the predicaments in Malabar was to nominate a separate bishop for the Syrians. On September 26, 1876 the Holy Father approved the decision of the Propaganda to send a second visitor to Malabar.
8.9. Msgr. Ignatius Persico Apostolic Visitor of Malabar
Msgr. Ignatius Persico reached Malabar as visitor on February 23, 1877. He studied the situation to prepare an objective report without interfering overly in the affairs. According to Persico, the earnest desire of the Malabarians to have a bishop of their own proper rite was age old and exhibited many times. The longing became intense due to the abandoned state in which they found themselves estranged from the missionaries, who for the lack of or little knowledge of the language, not only disregarded the Suriani Catholics but treated them with haughtiness and rudeness. Persico reported that, there were schools and charitable institutions established for the Latins, while for the Syrians little or nothing was being done, but they were left in ignorance and almost abandoned to themselves. The visitor insisted that the missionaries should learn Malayalam. Finally the visitor affirmed that the Carmelite missionaries, though good religious, their administration was rough and almost brutal. (Even Fr. Leopold who was pictured as a pro-Suriani, in his letters to the Cardinal prefect requesting a separate vicariate for the Syrians, envisaged a vicariate with a Carmelite as the apostolic vicar.) Even the missionaries themselves expressed discontent and frustration about their mission, and knew for certain that they were not doing justice to their work especially because of the lack of personnel and of money. The psychological state of the Carmelite missionaries could be read in the letter of Fr. Emidio OCD from Varapuzha: “Now I am staying here with Msgr. Leonard, who is in good health, as are also the other missionaries. However, all are almost like sheep assaulted by a wolf, frightened and alert, assaulted not by a wolf but by a Lion [Leo Meurin, Leo = Lion] whom I might call apostolic visitor, better apostolic perturber.”
8.10. Separation of Syrians from Latins
On July 9, 1877, the General Assembly of Propaganda decided to end the visit of Leo Meurin, to defer the division of the vicariate of Varapuzha and to appoint Fr. Marcelline Berardi OCD as coadjutor to the Leonardo Mellano with exclusive charge of the Syrians. Meurin left Malabar in September 1877 accompanied by the reunited Chaldean bishop Mar Jacob Urahah. The appointment of the coadjutor, though somewhat bitterly received, was joyfully accepted by the Carmelites, as they were afraid of being deprived of the mission. But, Mellano did not want to communicate the instruction from the Holy See that Marcelline should act for the Syrians independent of the apostolic vicar, and in consultation with a vicar general and four counselors. Marcelline himself did not want to act according to the directives, to have a vicar general and the counselors. More than once he wrote to Rome explaining the difficulties in appointing them. Moreover, he could not justify the necessity having four counselors since there were no cases in which he had to get counsel. Since Marcalline was too dependent on the apostolic vicar Mellano, the Syrians could not accept him as their own bishop. As a result, they continued writing petitions to Rome. Some of the main points of the petitions were: That great confusion existed in the Suriani churches because of the presence of Mellus who resided in Thrissur; that lax Carmelite bishops did nothing against the daily growing schism and that as a result the pagans, Protestants and Jacobites laugh at the Catholics who were being despised; that in order to suppress their development the Carmelites did not educate the Malabarians; that the Suriani Catholics claimed the right to have what other nations already had, a bishop of their own rite. Those who supplicated the Holy Father for a bishop of their own rite were considered rebels and so on. Rome appointed an expert to scrutinize the petitions from Malabar.Two of Louis Pazheparambil’s letters were scrutinized and the expert pointed out that the names undersigned seemed to be fraudulent in order to increase the number of priests. After repeated insistence from Rome Marcelline appointed a vicar general and four councilors, all known Carmelite supporters. Marcelline was not satisfied either. He wrote to Rome different times expressing his desire to resign.
8.10.1. Carmelite Missionaries and English Education
The missionaries seem to have been afraid of giving the people English education. They thought that pious Christians would be led astray by the absorption of modern thought or Protestant ideas through the medium of the English language. They were afraid of even publishing an encyclical of Pope Leo XIII [Inscrutabili dated April 21, 1878, describing the evils in the society to which the Church offered remedy in the spiritual and cultural levels], so as not to give the people a bad impression of religious conditions in Europe. Already in 1861, Protestant missionaries had opened a college in Kottayam; Jacobites had also moved forward in the field of education. As a result, both Jacobites and Protestants were able to obtain posts in government offices. But the Suriani Catholics who had no opportunities for an English Education felt themselves regressing as a community. Even though the government of Thiruvithamcore put 5,000 rupees a year at the disposition of Catholics for English education, Marcelline did not make use of the 20,000 rupees, the sum of four years. Marcelline wrote to Rome, “… it is necessary to teach it (English), and of course I must consent, though in truth I fear its miserable consequences.” When pressure increased both from the Syrians and from the part of Rome, the missionaries planned to start a college, but in Kochi which was not a Syrian Catholic centre as Ernakulam or Alapuzha. Even Mellano was aware that the college of Kochi because ofd its location could not serve the Christians, especially Syrians. He wrote to his superiors: “ It is true that these students are not all Christians, there was not being such a big Christian community in Kochi, and a large part consists in Protestants, Muslims and Hindus. Any way there is hope for great results.” Thus the long expected college did not serve the wishes of Suriani Catholics.
The Suriani Catholics of Malabar contrasted themselves with the Jacobites and the other Oriental Catholic Churches which made them feel that it was their right to have autochthonous bishops. The Jacobites had two archbishops and seven bishops; Catholic Armenians, at that time numbering about 80,000 had eighteen diocesan bishops, and some titular bishops; Chaldeans still less in number had twelve bishops. Other Oriental Catholics as Rumenians, Ruthenians, Syrians, Maronites, Melchites and the Bulgarians had their own bishops. The Suriani Catholics, the largest Catholic Church outside Europe, did not have even a single bishop. An awareness of this reality, joined with the growing nationalist spirit, prompted the Syrians to struggle for autochthonous bishops. Natrionalist spirit was growing in the minds of Indians irrespective of cult and religion.
8.11. Church Cases
After the arrival of Mellus, the faithful in many parishes were divided into two groups, as Catholics and Mellusians. As dissension increased, some suits were filed in the civil court for the ownership of the churches. The Chittattukara church was one of the first to be repossessed by the Catholics. This Church was under the Padroado jurisdiction, of which the major part followed Mellus and the minority, the apostolic vicar of Varapuzha. A lawsuit began in 1875, in the District Court of South Malabar was judged in favour of the Mellusians. Appeal against the decree of the district judge was brought before the Madras High Court in 1877. In this suit, Leo Meurin, the visitor was leading the Suriani Catholics. When he had to go back to Bombay terminating the visit, he handed over to Fr. Nidiry the responsibility to deal with the church cases. In 1878, the High Court inferred that Mellus, who received a letter of recall, no longer possessed the authority of the Patriarch as a bishop over the congregation at Chittattukara. Velianadu, Palayoor, Aranattukara, Mattudesam, Chevvur and Arthatt church cases followed the Chittattukara case. Mar Abdiso Thondanatt, after four years of association with Mellus, was reunited already in August 1878. The parishes which welcomed Mellus reverted to Varapuzha on a piecemeal basis. Mellus’ vicar general Fr. Mathew Palakunnel too reunited. After reunion, Mar Abdiso Thondanatt remained as an ordinary priest in his parish Anakallumkal till January 10, 1882 when again he switched allegiance from Varapuzha to Mellus. At the request of Mellus, Mar Abdiso started administering the Mellusians with Elamthottam as his see. On March 5, 1882, Mellus returned from Malabar entrusting the Mellusians to Mar Abdiso and the Chaldean monk Augustine, giving them the faculty for blessing oil, for administering confirmation and ordinations up to acolyte. In September 1887, Mar Abdiso again approached Nidiry expressing hi desire to reunite. He was considered to be an apostate and the practice of the Holy See was to recognize apostates in the same grade as before their desertion. Mar Abdiso was received back to the Church in 1865 and in 1878 as a simple priest. Because of the position of Rome to receive him as a priest after an appropriate span of time and not to concede episcopal ministry or insignia, Mar Abdiso’s reunion never came about. He remained in Elamthottam near Pala and later went to Thrissur probably in late 1897.
8.12. Erection of Thrissur and Kottayam Vicariates.
One of the important steps taken by Leo XIII to organize the Church in India to settle the problems was the appointment of an apostolic delegate for India. On September 23, 1884, Antony Agliardi was appointed as the first Apostolic Delegate. The second important step was the concordat of June 23, 1886, between Leo XIII and the King of Portugal. The third step taken towards the organization of the Indian Church was the institution of the Indian Hierarchy. In the last quarter of the 19th century there were twenty vicariates and two apostolic prefectures in India. The decision of the Holy Father to institute the Catholic Hierarchy of India was promulgated by the apostolic letter Humanae Salutis Auctor dated September 1886. Christopher Bonjean, vicar apostolic of Jaffna and Francis Laouenan, Apostolic vicar of Pondichery prepared separate projects to organize the hierarchy. Both suggested to erect an episcopal see for the Suriani Christians.
Agliardi the apostolic delegate reached Malabar and visited Koonammavu first at the request of Marcelline and Mellano. Then he reached Mannanam along with Marcelline and remained there for a few days. He met the Suriani Carmelites on the following day. A good number of priests and representatives of the Suriani parishes visited Agliardi. His report on his visit to Malabar gives the actual situation of Malabar. He wrote: “the Suriani clergy in general are neither erudite nor well educated, but good. … Among them there are priests who surpassed many of the Carmelite Fathers who are now in the mission, for the doctrine acquired by private studies, for good manners and for ecclesiastical spirit. It could also be said with certainty that almost all of the Suriani Catholics, clergy and people, desire a bishop of their own rite; those whom I have seen on the contrary opinion have told me that they are one to six”. For the time being, he suggested that it would not be prudent to give them a bishop of their own, but pointed out the absolute necessity to do something immediately. He suggested to create two vicariates for the Syrians, the division between them being the Aluva river, with Thrissur in the north and Alapuzha in the south. He suggested that two European bishops of Latin rite be appointed. Though the Carmelites and also many other apostolic vicars of India held the idea that Indians and Suriani Catholics in particular were absolutely incapable of government and even less to be bishops, Agliardi thought that an Indian could be found with the same civilization and formation as a candidate from Europe. He wrote that he found many such candidates in Malabar and pointed out some of their good qualities for which other nationalities were wanting: “… the gentleness of the mind, the patience, the temperance and the respect towards the authority”. It is interesting to note some of Agliardi’s reasons behind the suggestion to divide the Suriani Catholics into two vicariates: it would show the good will of the Holy See top do some thing for the Syrians without prejudicing the question of a native bishop; it would divide the strength of the Syrians into two centers etc. he thought it would not be prudent to appoint native bishops as it would seem to be a victory they achieved over the Carmelite Order and it would have the appearance of being as the vindication of one of their rights. He suggested Carmelites again as apostolic vicars for the would-be-erected apostolic vicariates in Malabar. On December 20, 1886, the Propaganda Congregation decided to separate the Syrians from the Latins forming one or two vicariates under Latin prelates. An important decision taken at this assembly was to impede all possible contacts between the Chaldean Church and the Malabar Christians. The Congregation decided to entrust the vicariates to a religious institute other than Carmelites, preferably to Jesuits. The assembly of the apostolic vicars of South India to be convoked in early 1887 was to decide the details regarding the new vicariates. The January 25, 1887 Bangalore meeting praised the resolution of Propaganda and declared it opportune to create two Suriani vicariates. They suggested the division according to the natural limit of Aluva river which divides the region from Malayattoor to Kochi. They suggested Thrissur and Kottayam as for the residence of the bishops. Agliardi suggested Marcelline OCD for Thrissur and for the other Fr. Polycarp OCD.
Though Jesuits were not ready to take up the Suriani vicariates, after repeated request of the Congregation, presented two terne Along with the two terne, Anderledy suggested the name of Fr. Charles Lavigne. In case Jesuits refused the proposal, Agliardi recommended the election of two indigenous priests as apostolic vicars, but from the Latin rite. He suggested the name of Fr. Adolph Medlycott. At this juncture, when it took time for the Congregation to find two proper candidates, the Holy See decided to take prompt action to calm the faithful of Malabar. Holy Father thought fit to order the sending of the Brief for erection of the two apostolic vicariates for the Suriani Catholics in the cities of Thrissur and Kottayam. The Brief Quod jampridem dated may 20, 1887 was sent to Aiuti, the then apostolic delegate. The dealings with the Jesuits were kept secret so as not to clash with the susceptibility of the Carmelites.
By the time Agliardi was transferred to Rome and Andrea Aiuti was nominated as the new apostolic delegate. Suriani Catholics wrote many letters to the delegate stating that they appreciated the care and solicitude shown by the Holy Father and that their sentiments would vanish if what the Carmelites were saying was verified, i.e., the new apostolic vicars would again be Carmelites. The General Assembly of Propaganda on July 25, 1887 decided to nominate Msgr. Marcellinos OCD for Thrissur and Fr. Polycarp OCD for Kottayam. Notable was the change of mind on the part of the Congregation in favour of the Carmelites. In the absence of the secretary of Propaganda, the Holy Father took the report and resolution of the Congregation, on August 23, 1887. The Holy Father had before him a telegram of Aiuti to Agliardi the former apostolic delegate for India who was then working in Rome. “In all charity prevent His Holiness from nominating Marcelline and Polycarp as apostolic vicars for the Suriani Catholics; otherwise schism certain.” The Holy father ordered Agliardi to reply by telegram: “You are authorized to declare that the Holy Father has not nominated any Carmelite as apostolic vicar for the Suriani Catholics; letter follows”. The Holy Father nominated Fr. Charles Lavigne as vicar apostolic of Kottayam and Adolph Medlycott as the apostolic vicar of Thrissur.
8.12.1. Thrissur Vicariate
A part of the territory of Thrissur i.e., Chavakkad and Paraur taluks was spread in the Malabar province of the Madras presidency of British India and the other remaining part belonged to the kingdom of Thirukochi. Thrissur was the stronghold of Mellusians. Adolph Medlycott was born in 1835 in Chittagong, Bengal India, of European parents. He had his studies in Rome and upon returning to India, he worked as a military chaplain in Frozen, Punjab, when he was nominated apostolic vicar of Thrissur. Propaganda requested Aiuti to call Medlycott to him to confer the episcopal consecration and to give him opportune instructions because “he [Medlycott] is not exempt from some defects incompatible with such dignity…”.Majority of the parishes of Thrissur vicariate came from Varapuzha jurisdiction and about twenty churches came from Padroado. A good number of the churches were under Mellus before they joined Varapuzha. There were more than 100,000 faithful, 123 priests, 83 parishes and 22 chapels and around 5000 Mellusians. The social situation of the Christians was superior to that of the Christians of the neighbouring missions. The majority, according to Medlycott, did not know the rudiments of dogma. They were very attached to some religious practices and to the performance of certain formalities which they believed made them good Christians. The people in general led a satisfactory moral life. The most urgent need of the vicariate of Thrissur designed by Medlycott were: 1. elementary education, 2. A middle and upper school, 3. Erection of a minor seminary, 4. A girls school, a catechumenate for females, 6. A residence for the apostolic vicar and for the personnel and 7. Some good missionaries. On his way to Thrissur from Ootty where he was consecrated, he visited the Mellusian parish at Wadakanchery and that church yielded to him. Medlycott tried to introduce the teaching of catechism in the churches and parish schools. He constantly urged churches to start keeping the Blessed Sacrament. He arranged annual retreat for clergy and insisted on Sunday sermons and reestablished the custom of providing retreats for the faithful. He also began a minor seminary in Thrissur. Medlycott won the Palaur church suit and some other church cases. His attempt for reform was not easy, because he was very harsh with his subjects. He followed the counsel of Fr. Polycarp OCD which created diffidence among the Suriani Christians. Medlycott excluded natives from his refectory and that showed his attitude towards the natives. Medlycott was hesitant as was Lavigne , to appoint the vicar general and the counselors. The appointment was differed as Medlycott and Lavigne continued discussing the question of vestments for the native vicars general. While Lavigne suggested to appoint the vicar general for three years, Medlycott objected saying it could be inconvenient at times to retain the same person for three years. He also wanted that the pontifical insignia be the property of the apostolic vicar and remain in his custody. Later he appointed Fr. Varghese Mampilly as his vicar general and Frs. Paulos Malieckal, Francis Alappatt, Marcelline Menachery and Devasia Manavalan as counselors; Fr. John Menachery was appointed as secretary.
Medlycott tried hard to get some foreign missionaries. Even to teach in the minor seminary he found the native priests unfit. Regarding the moral aspect of the priests, some of the old and many young priests were exemplary, Medlycott held. According to him only 15% of the priests could be relied upon entirely. The construction of the residence for the bishop and his personnel gave him enough headache. He had insisted on paying five percent from the parishes which caused many complaints. He displayed keen interest in the formation of priests. The aspirants for priesthood were received in the minor seminary. He also sent some students to Rome. He disagreed with Lavigne on the location of the planned college; rather than at Kottayam he held that it should be located at a place central to both vicariates. As the project was deferred he started his own programme. Almost all the parishes started Malayalam elementary school, some more than one. Besides, there were also six elementary English schools and two English middle schools entrusted to native Carmelites. He started St. Thomas College in Thrissur which at his time had the form of an English middle school. Regarding church administration, Medlycott started examining the parish accounts, and made residence in the rectory compulsory for parish priests. He was badly in need of financial assistance for constructions. Entrusting the property of the mission to Fr. Rossi, the only foreign missionary who was in the vicariate, Medlycott left Thrissur in early 1896 for America.
8.12.2. Kottayam Vicariate
The Suriani Catholics south of the river Aluva were placed under the vicariate of Kottayam, one of the important cities in the kingdom of Thiruvithamcoor. There were 12,000 inhabitants according to the 1881 census; Catholics numbered around 300. Kottayam was the centre of the Syrian Orthodox Christians and this was one of the main reasons to select Kottayam as the residence of the apostolic vicar. Charles Louis Lavigne, was born on January 6,1840 in France. He was ordained priest in 1864 and later he became a Jesuit. He received episcopal consecration on November 13, 1887 at Marvejols, his native place. When he reached Mannanam, there were 25 to 30 thousand people with two elephants to receive him. The schism was almost extinct in the Kottayam vicariate except for Elamthottam, where Antony Thondanatt stayed. Lavigne planned a systematic development of the vicariate, building a college, a seminary, bishop’s residence and schools and orphanages all of which required an enormous amount of money. Though the Suriani Carmelites of Mannanam treated him well, he naturally wanted to have a residence for the apostolic vicar. A college to prepare the students for the public examination was an urgent need. Lavigne was interested in the reunion movements. In April 1888, Lavigne went to Ootty at the apostolic delegation with Mar Dionysius, the Jacobite metropolitan and Fr. Nidiry. The Suriani Christians both Catholic and non-Catholics, were divided from time immemorial into two sections: Nordists and Suddists [Vadakkumbhagar & Thekkumbhagar] As the separation of the Suriani Catholics from Latins was effected, the question of this division came into serious discussion for the first time. Most of the Suddist priests wanted to remain under Varapuzha. Mathew Makil, along with Nordist Varghese Valiaveettil (Vazhakulam, Muvattupuzha) went to Ootty to meet Aiuti as representatives of the apostolic vicar of Varapuzha. In Ootty, Makil submitted a petition of the Suddists as their representative to Aiuti. There were 15 to 20, 000 Suddists with 12 parishes and 21 priests and 100-109,000 Nordists with 133 parishes and 256 priests. The general picture of the vicariate in 1888 was as follows: Suriani Catholics 107,000; Priests 271; Seminarians 190; churches 96; chapels 49; seminary: besides the common seminary at Puthenpally there was one exclusively for the Syrians at Mannanam; religious men: 69; religious houses 5; Religious women: 25; religious houses 1, secondary schools 5 & primary schools 200. A petition of ten parish priests of the Suddist community dated November 21, 1887, requested the Holy Father to place them under Mellano or his coadjutor Marcellinos. Even before the arrival of Lavigne, the division was clear in Malabar, and from Lavigne’s very reception he had to face the division. During the reception the Suddists requested him for an occasion to read a special address after the official one. Lavigne agreed to do this on the following day. Aiuti and Lavigne found the only solution to resolve the problem forever was to give a separate administration for the Suddists. Aiuti had already informed Propaganda that the project for a separate vicariate for the Suddists was designed by archbishop Mellano and Carmelites of Varapuzha. Following Aiuti's proposals, the general assembly of Propaganda Fide decided to give a separate administration granting them a vicar general and two councilors. Thus though Mellano could not attain his objective, i.e., a special vicariate for the Suddists, his strategy proved to have a bad effect, the growth of a division among the Suriani Catholics. Mellano was vehemently opposed to the separate administration of the 200,000 Suriani Catholics comprised of 172 parishes, 360 priests, 213 seminarians and 59 religious priests. He wanted to erect a third vicariate for the Suddists who numbered 15-20,000, with 21 priests and 12 parishes.
8.12.2.1. A test for Lavigne
One of the first tests Lavigne had to face was an unpleasant incident that took place in his vicariate. The seminarians who studied at Mannanam at that time paid 3.5 rupees monthly. Seeing that amount was not sufficient to provide good and substantial food for the seminarians, Lavigne ordered the fee to be increased to 4 rupees. The seminarians received this communication negatively, 58 of them left the seminary and moved to Kottayam, where they asked for an audience with the apostolic vicar to set forth their complaints. Lavigne refused to receive them and entrusted Frs. Nidiry and Pazheparambil to persuade them to return to the seminary and ask forgiveness and pardon from their rector for their insubordin- ation. The seminarians followed the directives of Nidiry and were readmitted. After some time Lavigne reached Mannanam and following an inquiry, expelled 8 of them. This expulsion produced a very bad impression on all. Later Lavigne recognized Aiuti’s [delegate apostolic] reasons for readmitting the seminarians. Aiuti in order to save Lavigne, asked Paray Tharakan to approach Lavigne. Lavigne granted Parayil’s request, telling him that it was only because of his merits towards the Church that it was granted. But the Suriani Christians understood the drama properly.
8.12.2.2. Appointment of vicar general
Lavigne, like Medlycott, desired to prolong the appointment of vicar general. The reason they said was that they needed more time to know their priests. Aiuti wrote to the Congregation that “ And here I cannot but sincerely declare to your Eminence, as I have reason to believe, that the reluctance of those prelates is not longer that need,… Many times in speaking with me at Ootty and later also in writing to me they made allusions to the prelatical gown and to the pontifical ornaments which could be used by the two vicars general, …”. Without a doubt Nidiry was the most distinct priest among the Suriani Catholics. Such was the observation of the Congregation, but Lavigne did not want to appoint Nidiry. Nidiry was accused of proposing equal rights for the Jacobite and Catholic bishops in the college project and was considered as a ‘wicked man’ who, though Lavigne had no positive proof, would become a Jacobite if mar Dionysius offered him a good church. Carmelite missionaries always considered him as the leader of all the movements against them and who organized the petitions to Rome against Carmelites. Lavigne was aware of the urgency of appointing the vicar general, but his dislike for Nidiry prolonged the appointment. In order not to appoint Nidiry as vicar general, Lavigne recommended Nidiry and Pazheparambil for papal honours, but it was seemed a delicate matter to Propaganda. Aiuti clearly told Lavigne that if Aiuti were in Lavigne’s position, he would not have the courage to place the Prefect of the Propaganda in such a situation by insisting strongly. Even though Aiuti did not expect a change of mind from Lavigne, to his surprise, Lavigne decided to appoint Nidiry. “… St. Ignatius tells us that, after having informed the superiors, we must obey upon a sign of their will, without waiting for a formal command. The letter of Your Excellency manifests very clearly the will of the S. Congregation for the Propagation of Faith, who substitutes the Rev. Fr. General for me. Tomorrow without much delay, I will publish the nomination.” The nomination [on Sept. 8, 1889] was a surprise for Nidiry himself. His nomination was generally almost taken for granted. Lavigne nominated Makil Mathew as his vicar general for the Suddists.
8.12.2.3. College at Kottayam
To start a college at Kottayam was originally the idea of the Syrian Christian Association, the Jathyaykya Sangham, formed by Catholics and Jacobites under the leadership of Nidiry and Mar Dionysius. The general meeting of Propaganda on December 20, 1886 had decided to impede the erection of the mixed college for the Syrian Catholics and the Jacobites of Malabar. Neither Mar Dionysius nor Mr. Dharrah opposed the prohibition from the Holy See. Moreover Dharrah himself, instead of Lavigne, agreed to pay the price of half of the land to Mar Dionysius, so as not to cause embarrassment for the Jacobites. Lavigne was content with this conclusion and was ready to start the college at Kottayam despite his expressed reasons against the location of the college in Kottayam. Medlycott suggested that the college should be established at some other place central to both vicariates. Aiuti felt that only a direct intervention of the Holy See would solve the discord between Lavigne and Medlycott. Later, Lavigne wanted to change his ordinary residence to Changanassery so that he could direct the college, that would be built there. Propaganda did not find any difficulty in Lavigne’s desire to establish the college at Changanassery, but to change the ordinary residence of the apostolic vicar in order to direct the college needed the approbation of a general assembly of Propaganda. George Parayil was approached for financial help who agreed to help in some way, but not to the extent of erecting the college, as the family already had erected the Leo XIII school in Alleppey. A meeting of priests and lay representatives of the vicariate, [300 in number] was convoked on November 14, 1889, at Pala, on the occasion of the first Pontifical Mass by Nidiry. They decided on a contribution for the building and maintenance of the college as well as for the bishop’s residence, to find a way to assure the support of a bishop of that nation and his episcopal curia. They decided to contribute for six years, each parish 20% its annual income, parish priests 10 rupees each, other priests 8 rupees each and laity who paid a tax of 1% to the government, also contributed as much to this fund. The beginning of the institute [today’s St. Berchmans] was any way delayed till 1891.
8.12.2.4. Transfer of Residence from Kottayam to Changanassery
Because Kottayam was not a centre for Catholics, Lavigne wanted to change his residence to some other place where there was a greater number of the faithful. The 300 Catholics were mainly Suddists, and the Suriani Catholic church which existed in Kottayam belonged to the Suddists. Before the separation of the Syrians from Latins, there was one church under Varapuzha, the Good Shepherd’s church, which Lavigne without much discussion left to the Latins. The Congregation found no difficulty in the foundation of the college in Changanassery, but the difficulty was in the transferring of the apostolic vicar’s ordinary residence to Changanassery just to direct the college. To grant Lavigne the freedom to change his ordinary was in a way a modification of the brief Quod jampridem. A modification in the brief needed the approval of the general meeting of Propaganda and the approval of the Holy Father. General Assembly of Propaganda discussed the matter on September 15, 1890 and the decision was approved by the Holy Father on the following day, as follows: “Lavigne was granted the faculty to reside in Changanassery instead of Kottayam, however the Brief Quod jampridem remained unchanged; he would retain the title of the apostolic vicar of Kottayam and try to ameliorate the conditions of Kottayam, which could be the ordinary residence of the apostolic vicar in the future.” On March 19,1891, the residence was changed to Changanassery, where there were about 8,500 faithful. Lavigne made definitive the transfer of residence from Kottayam to Changanassery which Rome allowed provisionally. This irritated the people and clergy very much. Lavigne found it difficult to cope with the liturgy and liturgical life of the Suriani Catholics. In order to separate the Malabarians from the Chaldeans forever, Lavigne suggested translating the Roman Pontifical. The practice of fasting was another problem Lavigne encountered in Kottayam. Lavigne asked Rome for permission for himself and as well as for his secretary to conform to the regulations of the Latin Church in India on fasting and abstinence. Propaganda could not understand why he should feel obliged to follow the customs of the Syrians. The congregation of the Tertiaries of St. Francis of Assisi was founded by Lavigne at Pala and instituted also the visitation convent for the Suddists at Kaipuzha.
Though Lavigne nominated Nidiry his vicar general his diffidence continued. The change of residence increased the conflict. Under Nidiry’s leadership a land near Kuravilangadu was also suggested for the residence of the apostolic vicar, but it was not acceptable for Lavigne. Nidiry did not support a central seminary, and his attitude was considered by Lavigne as offensive since it was against his own wish and the plan of the Congregation to found a central common seminary, Puthenpally. The reunion attempts of Mar Dionysius was seen by Lavigne with doubt. He could not understand the attitude of Nidiry who did not want to unite with the Catholic Latins, but wanted to unite with the Jacobites. Lavigne had nothing against Nidiry possessing his two-wheeled horse carriage and recognized that it was necessary for his work. But he could not understand on what pretext, true or false, because of the difficult character of the horse, he used to make Fr. Aloysius Pazheparambil sit on the back seat, the very back where a servant sat. In April 1892, Lavigne removed Nidiry from the office of vicar general. Lavigne had a very difficult time in India. He could gain neither the confidence of his subjects nor popularity. The Suriani clergy and faithful were not happy either. The Suddists were happy since they got a quasi-separate administration. Priests along with lay leaders sent petitions to Rome and to the Chaldean Patriarch as well. Zaleski, the apostolic delegate gives the real picture in his letter to the Congregation: “Thus the relation in the vicariate of Kottayam, the apostolic vicar on one side and the people and clergy on the other is one of mutual dislike, of mutual distrust and, humanly speaking, there is no possibility that it could return to a normal state. In such a situation, in the beginning of September 1895, Lavigne left for Europe with Fr. Aloysius Pazheparambil. Following Lavigne’s departure, some telegrams were sent to Pope Leo XIII: “The misgovernment of Lavigne induced the Malabar Chaldeans to submit to the Chaldean Patriarch” and “Do not believe Bishop Lavigne and his Malabar companion. Place us under the Babylonian Patriarch. Petition follows. Malabar Chaldean churches.”
8.13. Carmelite missionaries and the Suriani Vicariates
The concordat between the Holy See and Portugal was signed on June 23, 1886, to settle the Padroado problem. According to the concordat, Varapuzha had to leave some of her churches under the re-established Padroado diocese of Kochi. In 1887, 180,000 Syrians were also separated from Varapuzha. Before the concordat and the separation of the Suriani Catholics, Varapuzha had 90,000 Latins and 180,000 Syrians. Now Varapuzha would remain with 29,081 faithful. In Leonardo Mellano’s own words, “… this archdiocese of Varapuzha would be in such a miserable state, not to say ridiculous, that it would be better for it to be changed into only an apostolic prefecture.” Mellano tried to get some more faithful under him some way or other. The first attempt was to get Alappuzha and Poongavu Latin parishes, telling that the Christians of those two parishes belonged to a different caste from those of the other surrounding churches. The Ezhunooticar who had been assigned to the diocese of Kochi wrote petitions to Rome requesting that they again be placed under Varapuzha. As the decree for the division of the Suriani Catholics from the Latins reached the apostolic delegate Aiuti, he invited Fr. Mani Nidiry to Ootty. Remaining there for some days Nidiry prepared the translation of the decree. Aiuti’s act of publishing the new disposition of the Holy see regarding the Syrians through the priors of the Syrian Carmelites of Elthuruth and Mannanam instead of through their local superior to whom they belonged till then was unbearable for Mellano. The reaction of the Carmelites had started manifesting itself in different ways. Wherever they found it possible to make use of the division among the Syrians, they turned it around to suit their purpose and the different factions of Suriani Christians, knowingly or unknowingly, started pleading for Carmelites and for a separate vicariate under them. When the separation of the Syrians from the Latins became a reality, the Suddists began to send petitions to Rome in favour of the Carmelites. Congregation informed Mellano through Aiuti, the impossibility to erect a third vicariate exclusively for the Suddists. Mellano did not favour a separate administration for the 200,000 faithful with 172 parishes and 360 priests, insisted for separate administration for 15-20,000 people with 12 parishes and 21 priests, on condition that it would be entrusted to a Carmelite bishop. When this attempt failed, a new endeavour began. Medlycott seems to have had some information regarding the scheming pro-Carmelite priests, as stated in a petition for the third vicariate. He asked Lavigne to take action with their leader Fr. George Valiaveettil who was then professor of Puthenpally seminary and whose local ordinary was Lavigne. Lavigne decided to remove him from the seminary, gave him the order to leave and to reside in the Arakuzha church as assistant. He sent the petitions in the name of more than thirty priests from the central part of the Malabar coast who formed Nadumissam kakshi. They requested that a third vicariate be formed in the centre of the Kottayam and Thrissur vicariates, with the possibility of entrusting it to bishop Marcelline OCD who remained without assignment. They envisaged the restoration of the ancient see of Ankamaly to form the third vicariate in the centre. Propaganda requested them to be obedient to the dispositions taken by the Holy Father. Later Zaleski, the delegate apostolic reproached Valiaveetil declaring that an attempt for a third vicariate would be considered as an act of insubordination to the Holy See and that the first time he would cause an upheaval, he would certainly be suspended. By this admonition the attempt for the third vicariate came to an end. Fr. Candid OCD, the vicar general of Varapuzha presented a special project to reunite the schismatics and the rebellious of the apostolic vicariate of Kottayam, but this project did not meet with the approval of Zaleski. Fr. Boniface OCD, rector of the inter-ritual seminary of Puthenpally, suggested to form a Syrian hierarchy creating an archbishop and two bishops, of course all Europeans but would have adopted the Suriani rite. Zaleski presented this project before the Congregation and suggested to make Boniface himself the Metropolitan archbishop. The Congregation believed that this proposal would be insufficient to suppress the movement to have autochthonous bishops.
8.14. Syrian national union association of Malabar (Nazrani Jathyaykya Smgham)
The concept of the Nazrani Jathyaykya samgham was developed by Fr. Mani Nidiry in collaboration with Mar Dionysius, the Jacobite metropolitan. They acquired a piece of land in Kottayam, called Woodlands estate. Since education was one of the association’s main objectives, Nidiry and Mar Dionysius planned to start a college in the Woodlands property. The association envisioned various broad sweeping projects to encourage clever students by sending them on for higher studies including to foreign countries, to undertake more schools both English and Malayalam, as well as schools for girls, to teach girls in each village the arts of stitching, music and painting, to start orphanages, reading rooms and libraries, to start a bank, shop-network and so on. The Cardinal prefect of Propaganda requested for exact information from Mellano regarding the association and Nidiry presented a copy of the statutes. The general assembly of Propaganda on December 20, 1886 which decided to separate the Syrians from Latins forming for them one or two dioceses under Latin bishops, had also decided to impede the erection of the mixed college for the Syrian Catholics and Jacobite, proposed by the Indian Christian Association. Aiuti, the apostolic delegate, though he appreciated Nidiry very much, had his distrust for the association under Nidiry’s leadership. Aiuti managed to convince Nidiry that the realization of the project was impossible. Thus the attempt for the Nazrani Jathyaykya Sangham was aborted through Aiuti’s diplomatic approach. Still, the reunion attempts of mar Dionysius continued with Nidiry himself as the intermediary.
8.15. Mar Dionysius’ reunion Attempts
Mar Dionysius was the head of the Jacobite Suriani Christians of Malabar, having his residence in Kottayam. The history of the Jacobites in Malabar went back to the Koonan Cross Oath taken on January 3, 1653, in the Mattanchery church. Eventually on Pentecost Sunday, May 22, 1663, twelve priests imposed hands on the Archdeacon calling him Archbishop Mar Thoma I. In 1665, Mar Thoma I invited Mar Gregorios, Jacobite bishop who propagated Jacobitism among his followers. In 1772, Mar Thoma VI received episcopal consecration from the Jacobite bishop Mar Gregory and took the name Mar Dionysius. His attempts for reunion through Mar Cariattil were not accomplished.
In February 1874, Mar Dionysius V visited Mellano at his residence expressing his desire to reunite with the Catholic Church along with his people and clergy. On April 26, 1888, Mar Dionysius along with Lavigne and Nidiry reached the residence of the apostolic delegate Aiuti in Ootty, where they remained for two days. Mar Dionysius, who was waiting for the court decision of the civil court cases, asked Lavigne for a loan of 20 to 25 thousand rupees. Mar Dionysius decided to write to the Holy Father. The questions regarding the reunion included the following: 1. Whether the Jacobite hierarchy would be conserved; 2. Whether Mar Dionysius and other bishops who converted along with him would be left in their respective sees, and whether they would be provided with an annual financial allowance unless there were another stable provisions for their subsistence; 3. Whether married priests at the time of the reunion would continue to live with their wives, by requiring celibac