MT - 2. Conscience

2. Conscience

Conscience is an important topic in moral theology and moral life. It is said that nothing happens in moral life, unless conscience moves or moral life revolves around conscience. There is a close relationship between conscience and moral law; moral law is the objective norm of morality and conscience in the subjective. Conscience transforms the objective duty contained in the law into a subjective obligation of the person and motivates him to abide by that. Conscience is discussed by different discipline, especially theology, philosophy and psychology. Behaviorism defines conscience as conditioned fear reaction. In the process of growing up children are punished for certain bad behaviors. After experiencing a few times that a particular bad act is followed by punishment, fear is automatically aroused when the forbidden act is contemplated. And fear dissuades the person from ding the evil. Conscience is the sum total of such conditioned fears. This is a very negative and inadequate description of conscience, reducing it to the fear reactions of animals and children, from which mature conscience differs a lot. Psycho analysis equates conscience with super ego, which is the moral agency in the personality, the other two agencies being the Id and ego. Id being the totality of the instincts and desires of the individuals and ego, the rational and realistic agency in the personality. Super ego / conscience is formed during the Oedipus crisis through the process of identification with the parent when the child internalizes / adopts the moral norms and standards of the parents. Identification is a subconscious and defensive process and also irrational. The norms and values of the super ego are not all under the control of the individual; he is compelled to follow them. A mature conscience can’t be such an irrational, compulsive and impersonal agency. A normal human person, is quite aware of his moral principles, they are personalized and he employees them through his rational deliberative process. Besides in Freudian understanding, the values one adopts finally come from the culture. Therefore moral / conscience formation is a process of acculturation (getting adjusted to the norms and standards of the culture), in this situation an individual is not capable of criticizing their culture, because he has only what culture has given him. However a mature conscience as we understood is also capable of criticizing the values of the culture, if needed. For these reasons conscience can’t be equated with super ego, though an immature conscience may show the symptoms of the super ego, like irrationality and compulsiveness.

The moral theological definition of conscience is: a practical judgment of the intellect about the morality of one’s act. Conscience therefore primarily is an act of judgment; it is a practical judgment or action oriented judgment. The object of the judgment needs to something with which the agent is actually involved. In the present, past or future. If it is not so involved the judgment may be only a theoretical one. For e.g. a group of seminarians academically discussing the morality of atomic warfare and making a judgment about that, is only a theoretical or speculative judgment. It is not an act of conscience in the strict sense. The concern of judgment of conscience is the morality of the act, whether act is good or bad or right or wrong. This traditional definition criticized to be a little too intellectual. We all understand that conscience issues moral judgment, but at the same time evokes in us a certain obligation in tune with the judgment and thus motivates the agent to act accordingly, though the individual is free to make his own decision. Therefore conscience includes also an affective and motivational dimension. Remember also that the act of conscience precedes the act of will. We take decisions usually after getting the judgment of the conscience about the morality of the act. Don’t confuse act of conscience with act of will.

Popularly conscience is often described as the voice of God, which definitely contains an element of truth. However, they can’t be so easily identified because, not infrequently there may be different judgments about the one and the same thing. And the question comes, can God’s voice can be so diverse. In fact God’s voice is only one aspect of conscience, which is a mixture of various voices.

Vatican Council II deals with conscience in different places of its various decrees. However it describes conscience and speaks about its characteristics very specially in G.S-16. It speaks about the dignity of moral conscience. It defines conscience as the core and sanctuary of the human person. This shows the conscience is the deepest realm of person blessed with the presence of God. In conscience, there is a law, which calls man to do good and avoid evil, and specifically to do this or avoid that. This is a law written by God, calling man always to love of God and neighbours’; obeying this conscience is man’s dignity. Man should always try to be guided by a right conscience. However ignorance is possible but don’t succumb to visible ignorance. This shows the laziness and selfishness of the person which lead him further to evil, causing lose of the dignity of one’s conscience.

Types / Divisions of Conscience

We look at different faces of conscience so that we have a better grasp of the reality of conscience. A first division or basic division is fundamental conscience and functional conscience. Fundamental conscience refers to the basic moral capacity of the human person, consisting of a capacity for knowing the good, doing the good and more basically the sense of obligation towards the good; namely the feeling that one should do good and avoid evil. Man has an innate sense that he should choose and do the good and avoid what is evil. This is not the conclusion of any discussion processing, but a sort of intuitive knowledge. Man is capable of similarly understanding certain theoretical principles like something can’t ‘be and not be’ at the same time.

It is the fundamental moral capacity which enables one to readily understand the basic principle of morality. It is another question whether one always correctly judges, what is right or what is wrong; this depends on the correctness of one’s knowledge, which is very largely acquired. And also has the capacity to know the good, to discern between what is good and what is bad, as well as the capacity to do what is known as good. Remember that these two are capacities which have to be actualized.

Functional Conscience refers to the practical moral guide, which we have already redefined earlier. It is functional because it is that dimension of conscience which correctly guides us. There is a close relationship between these two aspects of conscience. In as far as the former is the basis and foundation of the latter. And the latter the actualization and expression of the former. The latter develops out of function by virtues……… They are often compared to a seed and a plant, where the latter develops out of the former.

We know that there are various grades when it comes to the moral standards of the people. Ranging from moral zeros to moral heroes, namely from those who have little moral sense to those who have great ideals and the readiness to live by them, people with the courage of their conviction. In between these two there are various grades of moral standards. All the people would normally refer to these consciences as the promoter of their moral life. I.e. conscience is a universal phenomenon, possessed by all categories of people and at the same time so diverse from each other. The important reason for this is the diversity of the socio moral factors shaping the functional conscience of people. The fact that one is endowed with fundamental conscience, doesn’t guarantee that it develops into mature functional conscience. This needs favorable environment. Therefore depending on the quality of the environment the quality of the conscience also differs. Just as the same quality of seed sawed on different grounds brings out as plants with different productivity. This should make us aware of the significance of the shaping factors of conscience. It is very important for us, as pastors of souls, having to guide, judge and form people’s conscience.

Further divisions of conscience are those of functional conscience, Conscience is thus 1st divided into – tender, lax, perplexed, scrupulous

A Tender Conscience is one, which is very earnest and sincere, in exactly knowing about its moral obligations, we meticulously faithful to that and capable of feeling the moral emotions corresponding to one’s behavior, happy upon good behavior and anxiety, shame, guilt upon misbehavior. However that a person with tender conscience has a disposition to feel more guilt and anxiety after doing something evil, not infrequently, even excessive guilt. Tender conscience may be partial or total; the first is confined to tenderness in one or two or three areas in morality, say for e.g. charity, spiritual obligations. The latter is tender about all moral obligations. Besides tenderness of conscience admits of degrees, one tender conscience being more tender than another and both being more tender in comparison to moral or average conscience.

If it is asked whether tender conscience is good conscience; in the light of its function, namely guiding the person rightly along the path of moral life. It is a good conscience, precisely because; it gives very exact guidance however, one should be careful not to fall into excessive gilt or preoccupation with one’s guilt etc, which are probable in the case of a very tender conscience. He should seek help from psychologists and spiritual counselors for better self understanding and control as far as possible so that he doesn’t feel unnecessary guilt.

Lax conscience; practically the just opposite of tender conscience is an indifferent and disinterested conscience with regard to one’s moral obligations, in terms of knowledge, behavior add feeling. He is very little disposed to feelings of shame guilt and so on after doing something evil; he might react as if misconduct is the proper conduct. This is not the case of feeling obligation and going against it, but not feeling the obligation in the 1st instance. This also can be partial and total, and admits of degrees.

The person with a lax conscience especially when he becomes aware of that, has the obligation to reeducate himself and acquire sufficient moral sensitivity and abide by moral obligations. He may have to seek the help of guides, counselors and so on for this modification, and those who in charge of him, has also the obligation to help him to correct himself. It may be that such conscience have already acquired basically a lax conscience in their childhood, which was then built up without a chance of being corrected, in that case we can’t blame the person concerned. But he has to be conscientised and helped.

Perplex Conscience, is a conscience, which is capable of making a judgment about its moral obligations, because it tender to see evil or wrong in both sides of a choice. He feels like some one between devil and deep sea. Therefore practically he doesn’t know what to do. It has been found that if such people are given assurance and encouragement by an authority or by somebody they confide, their perplexity disappears or is reduced very much. This is basically a question of diffidence in making moral judgment and decision, especially in matters which the individual considers to be serious. However always assuring them and boosting them to get over such difficult situation is only a temporary solution, not a genuine lasting solution. For genuine solution he must be told about his diffident nature, the need of conquering it for his own growth and then persuaded to make his own judgment and stick on it, though it may be painful. Enduring some pain and anxiety is part of the process of growth.

Scrupulous Conscience is a sickly conscience, tending to see sin in everywhere. Always tending to see one self in a bad light, incapable of making sound judgment about his moral obligations. On going preoccupations with good and bad self examination, making repeated confessions, doing penance and refraction etc are symptoms of a scrupulous conscience. It brings a lot of moral suffering to the person. It is therefore said by moral theologians ‘you may have any type of conscience, but not a scrupulous conscience’ because nobody wants a person to suffer like that in the name of being morally correct. In fact the problem of scrupulous is not a moral problem (though he considers to be so) but a psychological and emotional problem, which has to be dealt with accordingly. All the prayers and refraction, the scrupulous conscience does is, in fact for reducing his guilt feeling, rather than wipe away his moral culpability. Therefore a scrupulous is often called, unlike other persons who come to the confession, a patient than penitent. His problem is one type of obsessive compulsive neurosis, always infected by the idea of sin, in thought and action and compelled to do refraction for that. Scrupulous deserves the special understanding and care of a pastor. Scrupulosity also admits of degrees, also partial and total. One can imagine the psychological condition of a strong scrupulous person.


Another important division of conscience is two: right and erroneous consciences

Right conscience is one where judgment corresponds with the demands of the objective moral law; an erroneous on the contrary is the one who doesn’t corresponds with the demands of the moral law. The criterion therefore of right conscience is the agreement with the objective moral law, not with the subjective knowledge, belief or conviction of the agent. Simply put right conscience is the one, which tells the person concerned, what is his true obligation is, either to do something or not to do something. People often consider a subjective knowledge as the criterion of right and wrong, which is not right. In between right and erroneous conscience there is subjectively right conscience, a judgment proceeding in fidelity to the knowledge and conviction of the agent. Subjectively right conscience, as a little reflection shows, can be right and erroneous. It depends on whether the subject has correct moral knowledge or not.

Another important division of conscience is certain and doubtful conscience. A certain conscience is a moral judgment, about the correctness of which the person has at least moral certainty; when he doesn’t enjoy even a moral certainty, the conscience is doubtful. Conscience is supposed to guide the person correctly along the path of moral life. Since moral life is personal, one should also be aware whether, the judgment of one’s is right or wrong and he should have at least moral certainty about that. In this context certainty is divided into metaphysical, physical and moral. We have certainty, when something is predictable on the basis of relevant laws. If certainty is based on metaphysical principle, we have metaphysical certainty. If based on physical laws, we have physical certainty. These both are highly reliable certainty. Moral certainty, which only is usually available in our judgment and decision, is based on moral law or moral responsibility of the people. Since people are free, they may do as they like. Since they are also bound by moral obligation we presume that they will abide by moral obligations. Therefore moral certainty is rather weak but good enough to give us practical certainty, required for usual social interactions, because all grown up and adult people are presumed to have dues and sense of responsibility. However if there are factors which weaken their possibility of their responsibility, moral certainty is also weakened. Usually the more responsible, more educated, more mature people are, the more moral certainty we have about their behavior; the lower you come, the less the certainty. Hence sometimes we may have to critically access whether there is moral certainty in particular instances.

Binding Conscience
Having seen different types of conscience, let us see what is binding conscience? Namely the conscience, a person is bound to follow; therefore if he violates it, it becomes a violation of conscience and becomes sin. Often it is believed that right conscience is a binding conscience, because it guides the person correctly. However we don’t always have right conscience and at the time of making the judgment one is not certain beyond every doubt that he has the right conscience in that situation. Therefore a certain conscience is the binding conscience. It should enjoy the moral certainty about the correctness of the judgment. A conscience issues its verdict prescriptively, prohibitively or permissively. When it prescribes or prohibits something with moral certainty, the person is bound to follow. See that right conscience deals with the correspondence of judgment with law. And certain conscience deals with the agent’s certainty about the correctness of the judgment.

The principle of binding conscience has three implications.

1.) It underscores the dignity of personal conscience because what a person judges with moral certainty become the guideline for his own actions. If objective correctness were insisted upon, one might have to make endless search to arrive at objective correctness beyond every doubt, which is practically impossible in ordinary life. Besides a person with less education might be obliged to follow the direction and conscience of a better knowledgeable person in order to attain what is true in a situation. Hereby the former has to surrender the dignity of his conscience to the latter, which of course could not be acceptable. Moral theology says that a certain conscience is not infallible but is binding. However remember there should be at least moral certainty about the correctness of the judgment.
2.) The serious duty of forming one’s conscience. Whenever the Church emphasizes the dignity of the personal conscience she equally emphasizes the duty of forming one’s conscience according to the demands of the moral law. Otherwise a person happens to do what is evil with a peaceful conscience, no more thinking that what are right and the importance of formation. It is worthy to note that II Vatican council’s say that a conscience which errs in spite of the strive to form itself, doesn’t lose its dignity, while a conscience which errs without the strive to form itself, loses its dignity, because it doesn’t have sufficient moral concern and interest (GS 16).
3.) Mutual Respect: Thirdly it demands the mutual respect of conscience when one follows his (formed) conscience, he is doing what he is supposed to do, which should be recognized and respected by others, thus form a universal respect of conscience of each other. Evidently these consciences should be well formed; however with regard to people, who are adult and mature, usually we can only presume the good formation. Regarding the respect give to conscience II Vatican council teaches us that nobody shall be constrained to act against his conscience and people have the right to act according to this conscience (DH 1,3 – Digitatus Humance – Religious freedom). This doesn’t give license to anybody to disturb the community by virtue of freedom of conscience; the authorities concerned have the right and power to control abuses of conscience or misuses of conscience at least for the sake of common good.
If certain conscience is the binding conscience, what about the doubtful conscience?. Doubtful conscience is qualified as the red light on the moral rule, which means that a person may not act with a doubtful conscience. He is supposed to dispel the doubt and then act. Otherwise he wouldn’t be truly faithful to the obligation of avoiding evil as far as possible. Doubt can be solved directly or indirectly.
Direct solution consists in acquiring the required knowledge by consultation, reflection, reading and so on. And this is what we usually do in the face of a doubt. If direct solution is not possible one should try indirect solution which consists in applying the so called reflex principle. Reflex principles are norms of prudence gathered through experience and they tell us where more probably the right lies or where more right may be found, and this help us to do what is good as far as possible. Remember that reflex principles do not provide a moral certainty, but only more probability of being right.
The important reflex principles are the following:
In un-resolvable doubt:
1. Stand for the condition of the possessor, when there is a doubt or dispute about the ownership of a thing, the reflex principle applied is the above. The thing has to be given to the possessor. All reflex principles do not apply in all cases, but to specific categories of cases coming under each of them. The above one is used with regard to ownership of things maintenance of status quo.
2. Guilt is not to be presumed, but proved, if there is doubt about someone’s culpability. The benefit of doubt is given to the accused and consequently he is to be freed, because the presumption is that he is innocent until proved otherwise. The maxim that ‘Even if 100 criminals escape, an innocent person shall not be punished’.
3. Stand for the position of the authority. In a lasting doubted dispute between and authority and subjects, the position of the authority is presumed to be correct and the subjects have to obey him. The authority is expected to know the common good better and take decision with less selfish interest than others. He is also charged with the task of guiding the community as a whole.
4. Stand for the validity of act done. This applies to cases of doubt regarding the validity of an act due to lack of consent or such other essential factors. If there are questions raised about validity, the presumption is that the act is valid, until the contrary is proved.
5. Stand for the usual and ordinary. When there is a doubt, where somebody has done something or fulfilled an obligation or not, which is rather regular, the person can make a judgment in accordance with his usual and ordinary pattern of life. If he is in the habit of fulfilling such obligations, the presumption is that he has done so, also on the doubted occasion; if he is usually careless about the obligation, then the presumption also would be negative. It may be noted that all these reflex principles are reasonable and prudential especially when we realize that the opposite course of action would be more risky and foolish.


6. A Doubtful Law doesn’t oblige: Unlike the earlier principles which dealt with doubt of fact, this one deals with doubt of law. There is a doubt of law when there is a common doubt, whether there is a particular law in existence and the range of its existence. For e.g. somebody doubts, whether there is the law of abstinence on Friday in a region. There is a doubt of fact when somebody doubts whether a particular event, action, day, feast, comes under a particular law or not. For e.g. who is on a journey doubts whether today is Friday or not. The above principle says that when the law is doubtful, a person is not bound to obey the law. We may say that here there is an encounter between freedom and law. Freedom is a natural possession of man and moral law indicating one or another moral obligation also binds man. Freedom is restricted in as far as the law is certain and clear. When there is a common doubt about law, freedom prevails, and hence the justification of the people.
However in the history of this principle, its application was not so easy, there sprang up question about the degree of doubt about the existence of law for the legitimate use of freedom and gradually 5 positions or systems evolved. And they are usually known as the moral systems, namely (1) Tutiorism (rigorism), (2) Laxism (3) Probabiliorism (4) Equiprobabliorism (5) Probablism.

Rigorism is a position, which tries its best to be with law. Therefore according to it one may follow his freedom, only if there are highly probable arguments for the non-existence of the law.
Laxism, taking just the opposition, says that one may follow his liberty, provided he can find some argument, even if very weak for the non-existence of law. And this position supports very much freedom.
Both these extreme positions have been disapproved by the Church. That means, one need not be so strict nor so permissive when the law is doubtful.

Probabiliorism says that one may use his freedom if there are more probable arguments for the non-existence of law, thus favoring the law. Equiprobabilism says that freedom may be followed when there is equal probability, for non-existence as well as existence of law, showing its complete impartiality. Probabilism holds that one may follow his freedom provided he has a solid argument for the non-existence of law. Even if there are more probable arguments for its existence. Though it sounds a little paradoxical this principle is accepted and one is not bound to compare among arguments. If one honestly things that he has a solid argument for the case at hand he may follow his freedom. Critics have accused probabilism of laxity, but they answer, they are earnest about being morally correct and require solid argument. However the general advice is one may not simply follow probabilism, when there is a risk of serious material or spiritual consequences.

Of all the positions, probablism is often spoken about, and used in moral theology. Sometimes it is also misapplied. Sometimes when Church issues a teaching with supportive arguments, theologians critically review them, which is part of their theological functions. However so many arguments are brought for and against the teaching, leading people namely theologians, to solve the problem by searching for solidly probable arguments or opinion. Thus probablism comes to decide the issue. A basic flow of such procedure is that the church has not given the teaching as a debated or doubted one, and as open to the application of probablim. When the doubt remains, despite going through the process of reflex principles, one has to apply finally, the principle of lesser evil. Here the individual is expected to compare the advantages and disadvantages of two alternative courses of action and supposed to choose that which brings about lesser evil, thus try to avoid evil as far as possible.

Conscience in the Bible

As far as the OT is concerned, the Hebrew language had no particular term, to indicate, what is conveyed by conscience today, which doesn’t mean that the OT is unaware of the reality of conscience. In OT the equivalent used is the word heart- heart replaces conscience in OT. This is quite legitimate, because heart was supposed to be the centre of personality, and one could feel the differences in the reactions of the heart as he felt different moral emotions like happiness, joy, guilt, shame and so on. Several texts which we find related to conscience therefore express the experience through heart. For e.g. Jer 17, 1 “The sin of Judah is engraved on the tablet of my Heart’. Jer 23, 9-10; Job 27, 6; Ps 26. There is only one place in OT where the Greek word is found Wisdom 17, 11, and this is understandable because it was written in Greek.

Coming to the NT, we do not find in any of the Gospel, the Greek term suneishsi" – suneinesis found. However we find it frequently in epistles of St. Paul. Therefore it is said St. Paul is the person who popularized conscience in Christian community. We find for e.g.
Weak Conscience – 1 Cor 8, 7
Good Conscience - 1 Tim 1, 5
Pure Conscience - 1 Tim 3, 9
Corrupt Conscience - Titus 1, 15

An important test on conscience again comes in St. Paul i.e. Rom 2, 12-16 “St. Paul raises a problem of judgment of Jews and gentiles, Jews will be judged according to the Law, but how the gentiles will be judged’ St. Paul Says “What the ;aw requires is written on their heart and their conscience bears witness to that’. In Other words, they should know what is good and bad from the natural law inscribed on their heart, and their conscience bears witness whether they are truly following it or not. This text, therefore teaches about both, the existence of natural law as well as the function of conscience in everybody.

FORMATION OF MATURE CONSCIENCE

Formation of mature conscience is practically a very important matter. Now days we lament a lot about moral decline of the society and especially the permissiveness of the younger generation. A very important solution to all this is to help people to develop a mature conscience which the church always insist up on. The important requirement for a mature conscience may be summarised as follows.

1. Sound Moral Knowledge
2. Autonomous Motivation
3. Integration
4. Prudence and Sincerity.

Several other factors could be added to these; these however are basic and each of them in fact contains other related factors.

1. Sound Moral Knowledge

Conscience is basically an act of judgement about one’s moral obligation and this can’t be done without knowledge of sound moral norms and values. Therefore it is the prime requirement for mature conscience. As we know there is a lot of relativisation in the area of moral values today. Therefore presenting sound values and correct hierarchy of value is important for the formation of mature Christian conscience. Moral norms and values based on Christian faith should be properly emphasized and taught. In this context bear in mind also that knowledge can be verbal, conceptual and evaluative. The first consists simply in learning a formula by heart and reproducing it when needed. This is characteristic of till about 6 years of age (early childhood). Conceptual knowledge includes some grasp of the meaning of the moral laws, but not a detailed knowledge of that or its justification. This is the characteristic of late childhood (6-8). Evaluative knowledge is based on the understanding of values involved in moral norms. At this stage one becomes capable of understanding abstract concepts and ideals which is very important for mature moral reflection and evaluation. One also understands now, the significance of moral laws, why they should not be violated, and consequences of violation for oneself, the others and the community as a whole. As well as the interrelationship of various moral values. One becomes capable of this at the stage of adolation, and they grow further in this ability. It is clear that mature functioning of conscience supposes evaluative knowledge therefore while giving moral instruction one must keep in mind the cognitive ability of the child and give instructions proportionate to his capacity. Moral norms should be explained better at the later stages, especially after adolescent. At this stage it is said, values are better caught than better taught. Suitable means of communication like debate, role plays, and discussions may be used for it. And values involved may be clarified so that children learn to appreciate the significance of important values and will catch them. The different stages also imply that the maturation of conscience can not be imposed on somebody; we have to wait for the process to unfold and help together with it.

Another point to note regarding moral knowledge is the proper emphasis of different moral laws. Often there is a tendency to over emphasize certain commands (For E.g. sexuality and life) and under emphasise certain other(e.g. Justice). This naturally gives rise to an imbalanced moral outlook and practice, sometimes leading to unnecessary burdening in certain areas and gross neglect of duties in the other, both of which are contrary to healthy moral development. Finally while imparting moral knowledge a proper perspective of morality also should be communicative. That morality is not a legal system but of course a totality of duties and obligations meant for the integral good of the person and community of persons. As we know ‘man is not for sabad, but sabad is for man’.

2. Autonomous Motivation

While moral laws tell us ‘what to do’ and ‘what not to do’, motivation clarifies why or what for we do something o abstain from doing something. The motive also is very important in the morality of conscience. For e.g. A child who doesn’t steal because he is afraid of punishment and a young man who doesn’t steal because he is personally convinced that he should respect the property right of another, are two vastly different motivations and witness to two grades of maturity. Kohlberg Lawarnce, a researcher in moral psychology has proposed his theory regarding the development of moral motivation.

Though there are several studies about it, his one is most known and popularised. This however doesn’t mean that his theory is fully accepted; there are also criticisms about it. We shall have a summary look at the theory. According to him a person can pass through 6 stages of moral development, with different motivation for each stage. The 6 stages together with motivation are the following. In fact he divides moral development in to three levels and each level into 2 stages, i.e. 3 levels and 6 stages.

Levels (age) Stages Motivation Morality
Pre-conventional (<10) 1 Punishment Avoidance Fear Morality
2 Need Satisfaction Selfish Morality
Conventional (10-18) 3 Approval of the Significant Others Sentimental Morality
4 Authority – Law maintenance Authoritarian (Legalist) Morality
Post-conventional (18<) 5 Common Good (Social wellbeing) Socialist Morality
6 Personalised respect for others’ rights Personalized (Autonomous) Morality

# 1st stage is motivated by avoidance of punishment. A young child has no more moral philosophy than avoiding punishment which brings about pain in one way or another. His values concept and motivation is so self centred and immature. It is where all of us begin but we are not supposed to stay there. The morality of this stage is qualified as fear morality.
# 2nd - The basic motivation of 2nd stage is ‘the satisfaction of one’s needs’, for e.g. food, drink, toys etc. For the 2nd stage morality in other words is an instrument for satisfying his needs and therefore it is known as selfish morality. Though selfishness is something diametrically opposed to morality. It is to be seen as a stage of development. An adult who persist in the 2nd stage will be motivated to do anything to satisfy his needs and by that time he will know how to avoid better the bad consequences of such course of conduct.
# 3rd - From here the individual passes to a value concept based on the approval of significant others. Significant others are those who are important to the child, because they love, care for, esteem and so on; in other words the child has great emotional dependence on them, which motivate him to be good boy before them. This is therefore called sentimental morality. Those who happen to grow up in this stage will be very nice to those who are well related to them, but to others it won’t be difficult for him to behave as he likes.
# 4th stage is dominated by the idea of respect and obedience to authority and his laws. The individual considers these realities as sacred and therefore obedience is the key virtue. 4th stage is therefore known as authoritarian (Legalist) morality. Such a person therefore will not be able to criticise the authority or the law he gives.
# 5th stage is motivated by concern for common good. What contributes to common good is understood as good and what violates it as bad. By this time the individual thinks that he is part of the wider society and he has an obligation to contribute to its well being and so every body else has. The morality is known as socialist morality, which is already a mature morality, short of recognizing and acknowledging the dignity and right of individuals as such.
# 6th stage is motivated by personal respect for the dignity and right or every other human being. The individual is personally convinced of the significance of this. Good and bad is, what contributes to, or subtracts from the good of the individual and his well being. Since the rights of the person flow from his being and the agent is personally convinced of his obligation to respect rights. This is very well called personalized or autonomous morality. Since justice is the virtue concerned with respect for people and their rights, the dominant virtue in 6th stage is justice.

As one goes up the stages he can see a gradual development in the quality of motivation. It grows from externality towards more and more interiorization; similarly it passes from selfishness more and more to equal concern and altruism. From the part of the content of the morality which is determined in the 1st stage by punishing agency then by need satisfying agency and so on, finally it is decided by the universal rights of the people based on the humanity in which all share.

Thus at the final stage there is a better objective foundation for discerning what is god and bad. In short growing interiorization, altruistic concern, objectivity and universalization are the features of development from the point of view of moral motivation and content.


According to Kolberg theory the stages are sequential, that is they go through each stage in the course of development, without any. That also implies that if a person doesn’t get suitable environment to develop the next stage, depending on the availability or non availability of favourable socio moral environment. The important factors required for development are theoretical clarification and knowledge of the motive of the stage towards which one is to grow. For e.g. A 2nd stager esteemed to grow to 3rd stage should be made aware of his relation with significant others, their expectations about him, how he could aspire to them and thus remain a good boy winning their approval and so on. And that it should be a better motivation than the selfishness of the 2nd stage, correspondingly such a person intending to grow to 3rd stage should also feel the love, care and approval etc of the significant people. Think also what should happen to a child if he has nobody who is significant, who might give him the required clarification and experience. In the absence of somebody he will remain as a 2nd stager always.

Theoretically all of us are supposed to be on a particular moral stage. It is said that any given stage our motivation is a mixed one. But one of them will be dominant, say exerting about 50% of influence on our value concept, thinking and motivation and that is supposed to be the dominant stage of the person. Kolberg’s finding shows that very few people even in the advanced societies reached the 6th stage. Many adults are in 4th or 5th stage.

There have been several criticisms as well as approval for the theory. In fact it has several +ves and –ves. It is fund to be generally practical and applicable theory, at least as far as moral motivations concerned. C. Gelligan (a lady researcher) has said that Kolberg’s research was male dominated. His theory of development especially the idea of justice being the final virtue is characteristics of men, who are by nature more theoretical, analytical, abstract, right oriented and so on. According to her findings in ‘In a different voice’ she says that women are guided by warm relationships and personal care. And caring becomes the final virtue, which is more love based. Further study in the light of the controversy more or less says that there is no dichotomy between the moral orientation of the male and female. Both are capable of justice and care motivation. Though it is easier for female to be person oriented and caring. It also shows that Kolberg’s theory has to be balanced with the motivation of care.

Another important criticism came from Christian thinkers and theologians, who said that justice can be superseded by a still nobler motivation namely that of love and self giving love, as totally exemplified by Jesus Christ. Though in the purely natural senses Justice is the dominant virtue, in the perspective of Christian faith Charity is nobler. Kolberg has accepted the criticism and categorized that religious motivations as 6 ½ th stage. It is after all a personalised and altruistic morality. But working up on a slightly different motivation namely self less love, which can persuade people to for go their rights for the sake of another.

3. Integration

3rd feature of mature conscience is integration. Conscience acts and reacts mainly in three realms.
Cognitive Behavioural and Emotional
The cognitive refers to a realm of knowledge including thinking, reasoning and judgement and so on.
Behaviour refers to actions corresponding to one’s moral knowledge; behaviour can also go against what one knows to be good and right.
Feelings are the emotional reactions felt after doing something, they can be +ve or –ve. +ve emotion is usually categorised as a sense of moral joy and satisfaction; may be due to the lack of punishment, not loosing others approval and the happiness at one’s doing duty. –ve emotions are mainly fear, shame and guilt. Fear based on probability of punishment is typically in the emotion of early stage; especially 1st and 2nd; shame based on probability of loosing the approval of significant others is the characteristic of the next 3 stages especially 3rd and 4th. And guilt which is remorse for violating others right, wounding human dignity or not fulfilling one’s duty, irrespective of fear and shame is the characteristic of last stage of morality. Guilt is therefore supposed to be a mature moral emotion, though unpleasant.

Integration means harmony among the three dimensions. One has correct knowledge, behaves positively according to that and feels corresponding moral joy, shows good integration. One who has correct knowledge but acts against that and doesn’t feel corresponding emotion shows lack of integration, which may happen in different measures. A mature conscience is supposed to be well integrated. Achieving integration is a function of proper training. i.e. correct knowledge should be imparted and proper discipline should be provided by encouraging good behaviour and discouraging bad behaviour. Many parents give instructions but do not enforce it. Some other may strongly encourage good behaviour or discourage bad behaviour, but doesn’t give any theoretical input. Here the children will have no enlightened morality. It may lead to a kind of blind obedience. So harmony in training is important.

Certain basic factors essential for moral development may be very briefly noted.
Love and care is basic. Nobody becomes moral unless he has a basic capacity to love. The capacity to love hardly develops and becomes functional unless the individual himself has experienced a certain measure of love especially in the years of growth. Similarly caring for the needs of the child. Usually if there is love there will be care. Another important thing is giving optimum (best) practical norms for behaviour. Optimum means not simply maximum or highest, but the most suitable or best in the light of endowment and environment of the child. Another important thing is good models, who practice what they teach, starting from parents, teachers, friends, leaders including pastors and all significant to influence from various quarters and therefore a delicate process.

4. Prudent and Sincere

These characteristic come from the moral theological perspective, while the previous two come predominantly from psychological perspective. Prudence is the ability to make a correct judgement about one’s obligation here and now. It is a seasoned application of a norm to a concrete situation, where mere knowledge is not enough. Various factors relating to the subject as well as to the situation have to be taken into account for which life experience is the beat teacher.

Sincerity means openness to the truth. There should be an open attitude, readiness to search for the truth as well as the willingness to ambries the truth when found. Such openness to the truth is a basic characteristic of a mature conscience. Presuming a sort of monopoly over moral truth is far from the quality of a mature conscience. Remember also that a person undergoes much pre-conscious influence in the formation of conscience, which makes all the more necessary to be open and humble. In this context formation of mature conscience means not only listening to one’s own view, opinion and inner promptings but also to the opinions of other especially to the Church community and very particularly, the official teaching authority of the Church. Respect for the teaching of the Church therefore is an important feature of a mature Christian Conscience. Even if the judgement is ones own, it should come from a source of moral knowledge enlightened by the teaching of the Church.

Conflict of Conscience

We have seen that a person is to be guided by binding / certain conscience and a Catholic believer is bound by the official teaching of the Church. More extensively any person subject to authority is supposed to obey the authority, this can at least in certain cases lead to ‘conflict of conscience’. Note that conflict is not merely a difference of opinion between a subject and authority. Such differences can be easily solved if there is an appropriate atmosphere in a community, where the authority is ready to serve and the subject is respective and cooperative. If the authority functions in an attitude of service with guidance, consolation, motivation and good examples, rather than self imposition and authoritarianism, the going will be smooth. The subject on his part should be respective and ready to be guided in the life of faith. Any believer therefore should have a corresponding openness when these dispositions are there from both parties. It is easy to solve differences of opinion through dialogue, however sometimes they can proceed to conflict of conscience where an individual finds it difficult to obey or cooperate with the superior preciously because he feels convinced of his conscience, that the order of superior is wrong and he may not obey or cooperate. Sup on his part also usually finds himself in the same positions. Therefore it is a conflict of two consciences. In such a situation both are entitled to their positions. The subject is expected to follow his conscience, however the conflict of conscience should be characterised by the following conditions:

• It should be enlightened dissent. One may dissent only after proper study, prayer, reflection and also usually also in a grave matter.
• The subject dissents at his own risk, i.e. he will be liable to the punishment or other measures, the authority may take. Of course it can be considered as the price one pays for maintaining the integrity of his conscience.
• He should obey the authority in all other matters.
• There should be maximum mutual respect for each other because both are guided by their enlightened and certain conscience.


Scrupulosity

Trying to understand the scrupulous

Usually scrupulous person is an introvert; scrupulosity is a type of obsessive compulsive nervousness. They have a disposition to live in their inner world, thinking, planning, examining especially themselves. An introvert brought up in perfectionist manner can easily become a scrupulous. This happens all the more he grows up in a loving caring environment. Because the parents are perfectionists, the child is likely to find it very difficult to live up to the expectations of the parents. Since they are loving and caring, he tries his best, but parents would not be usually satisfied with him. He might try harder, but rarely succeeds, this gives him a sense of failure, and namely that he can never succeed in living up to the expectation of his parents, or that he will never succeed in pleasing his parents. Later in his relationship with God, he finds himself always a sinner. Scrupulosity actually emerges when the person commits some serious sin, which he feeless like or experience like a moral shock, which may be in any area of morality, but more likely in those areas with which he is more concerned. Sexuality, fulfilment of spiritual exercises and sometimes obligations of justice are frequently the matter of scrupulosity.

If you meet with a scrupulous person, the following general principles may be good for guiding:

• You can find out a scrupulous person, usually in the confessional, from the mode of his confession. They make very detailed confession, and details of every sin without showing the usual reserve people have in narrating about sins, including sexual sins. If you are prepared to help, you can tell the person to meet you later outside the confession. And in such a meeting you can tell him briefly that sure from this malady needs a lot of self – understanding as well as direction which would require several meetings, wither in confessional or better outside the confessional, in a proper and suitable place. At the outset it is very important to gain the confidence of the penitent, what is to be done for this is to be very understanding, empathetic and non-judgemental, whenever you meet the person on later occasions.
• Another requirement for winning the confident of the penitent is to listen to him in detail the first few meetings, whether in the confessional or outside. Usually a scrupulous has a lot to speak and explain about his moral state, as a rule stamping himself as a great sinner. In other words, let him unburden himself, this has two advantages, he feels a relief, as well as we understand where he stands and it also enhances his confidence in us, through the understanding that we are positively disposed to him, ready to spent our time for him and thus cares for him.
• After this, the important task now is to make him aware and gradually convince that his basic problem is psychological rather than moral, though he believes that it is a serious moral problem. When he is told that his problem is psychological, he must also made aware that scrupulosity is not a grave mental disorder, but only an emotional problem that can be handled and cured with his good cooperation. He may also be told that, there are several people who suffer from scrupulosity in different measures. And then he must be given an understanding about the nature and character knowledge of scrupulosity. Here it may be specially emphasised that scrupulosity is the result of rigid training and introvert temperament. The associated shyness, continuous self examination, the difficulty to open oneself fully, very strict self judgement etc. makes the experience worse. It may be enlightening for the patient to get some information about his early experiences as far as possible and his usual style of behaviour at home, in the school or in the workplace and so on.
These situations are likely to contain factors which usually lead anyone to scrupulosity. However now he has to accept the reality and try to solve it effectively. This understanding that it is a manageable psychological problem gives him a lot of confidence and optimism. Consequently, he could be enabled to make correct judgement on his morality of his action, without the presumption that all his actions are sin, that God is never pleased with him, that God is a strict avenger of sins, so on. The parable of the prodigal son is a good biblical passage for them to read and reflect. Here we should also give if necessary sufficient moral theological clarifications about the nature of sin, its requirement and so on. Depending on the focus of his concern proper enlightenment should be given about it. One usual problem of scrupulous is, of sexuality, and is too believe that all fantasy and imagination are sinful. They usually forget that fantasy even if sexual do not become sinful without our concern or cooperation. They can also be given exercise in judging moral problem of different types, especially from the field of their scrupulosity, and guide them to make balanced judgement. This is a process that may take some time. If the person is partially scrupulous this can be more effectively done. By comparing the difference in his behaviour between scrupulous and non-scrupulous areas. If the person is totally scrupulous, the task becomes longer and difficult, but we should have the patience and readiness to do that, together with this the penitent may be given some concrete instructions like the following:
• No elaborate examination of conscience
• No repetition of old confession
• Don’t shift confessor to confessor
• They also may be given permission to receive communion for weeks and months without previous confession, provided we know they are very earnest and sincere people.

Gradually by combining these processes, especially, the awareness that it is an emotional problem, sufficient moral theological enlightenment and the person trying to make balanced judgement, the helper will succeed in relieving the person totally or very much from the grip of this gnawing malady. In the mean time he should also be encouraged to involve himself in social activities, the problems of the others, so that he forgets his problem and comes to understand and help others. As it is said about neurosis in general, the more you become other concerned, the less your own problem troubles you. And finally he should be encouraged to seek God’s help through Prayer. At the same time better not to give them penance and mortification, because they may overdo it.